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VETERINARY   STUDIES 


THE  MACMILLAN  COMPANY 

NEW  YORK   •    BOSTON   ■    CHICAGO 
SAN  FRAN-CI?i:0 

MACMILLAN  &  CO.,  Limited 

LONDON   •    BOMBAY   •    CALCUTTA 
MELBOURNE  ■ 

THE  MACMILLAN  CO.  OF  CANADA,  Ltd. 

TORONTO 


YETERINARY  STUDIES 


FOB 


AGRICULTURAL  STUDENTS 


BY 

M.    H.   REYNOLDS,    B.S.A.,  D.V.M.,  M.D. 

PROFESSOR    OF    VETERINARY    MEDICINE,    UNIVERSITY    OF    MINNESOTA 
BIEMBER    INTERNATIONAL     COMMISSION     ON    CONTROL    OF    BOVINE 
TUBERCULOSIS  ;     MEMBER    AMERICAN    VETERINARY    MEDICAL 
ASSOCIATION  ;      MEMBER     AMERICAN     MEDICAL     ASSOCI- 
ATION ;    MEMBER    AMERIC;AN    PUBLIC    HEALTH 
ASSOCIA-^ION  ;     ETC. 


THE   MACMILLAN   COMPANY 

1917 

^11  rights  reserved 


Copyright,  1910, 
By  the  MACMILLAN  COMPANY. 


Set  up  and  electrotyped.     Published  December,  igio.     Reprinted 
August,    1911.     September,   1912.    August,   1913.    July,  1915. 

:\Iarch,     1917. 


PKEFACE   TO   FIRST   EDITION 

During  ten  years  experience  in  teaching  veterinary  sub- 
jects to  agricultural  students,  certain  difficulties  have  been 
constantly  encountered.  Others  doing  this  work  have 
probably  had  similar  experience.  There  has  been  the 
difficulty  of  imperfect  training,  or  entire  lack  of  training, 
in  physiology  and  other  subjects  which  medical  men 
recognize  as  fundamental.  There  is  always  present  the 
difficulty  of  presenting  a  technical  subject  in  untechnical 
language;  difficulty  in  securing  satisfactory  illustrations; 
and  difficulty  in  giving  the  kind  and  character  of  veteri- 
nary work  which  is  generally  demanded  and  conceded 
as  necessary,  without  giving  our  students  a  sort  of  train- 
ing which  will  turn  some  of  them  into  unqualified  prac- 
titioners. There  has  been  serious  difficulty  in  covering, 
^vithout  a  textbook,  a  satisfactory  amount  of  ground. 
IVIany  students  do  not  take  notes  well,  and  hence  for 
several  years  I  have  been  distributing  mimeographed 
lecture  notes  to  my  classes. 

During  this  time  I  have  been  more  and  more  impressed 
with  the  belief  that  a  textbook,  wisely  illustrated  and 
carefully  edited  for  its  legitimate  use,  would  enable  me 
to  cover  very  much  more  ground  within  the  available 
time. 

The  style  of  editing  that  has  been  adopted  was  selected 
with  a  view  to  presenting  the  subject  matter  to  students 
in  a  conspicuous  and  easily  grasped  way.  This  must  be 
our  excuse  and  answer  to  criticism  which  the  expert 
printer  may  legitimately  make. 

This  work  has  been  written  more  particularly  as  a  text 
for  veterinary  classes    in    agricultural   colleges ;  but  it  is 


VI  PREFACE   TO   FIRST   EDITION 

hoped  that  it  may  prove  helpful  also  to  stockmen  who 
are  not  able  to  attend  our  agricultural  colleges,  but  wlio 
care  to  know  more  of  the  animal  machines  with  wliich 
they  are  working.  I  take  this  occasion  to  deprecate  the 
blind  home  dosing  of  stock  to  which  farmers  and  stock- 
men are  very  much  inclined.  The  student  should  realize 
the  impossibility  of  writing  a  prescription  that  will  fit 
all  cases  of  a  certain  disease,  and  if  a  good  student  lie 
will  hesitate  to  risk  the  use  of  medicines  of  which  he 
knows  very  little  in  diseases  of  which  he  know^s  less. 

Lecture  notes  which  have  been  collected  during  a  period 
of  ten  years  have  formed  the  basis  for  this  work,  and  I 
am  now  unable,  in  many  cases,  to  give  credit  to  authori- 
ties that  have  been  consulted,  where  credit  is  fairly  due. 

Illustrations  have  not  been  vised  in  any  case  merely  as 
pictures.  Every  one  is  intended  to  illustrate  something 
and  make  that  illustration  as  impressive  as  possible. 

Suggestions  to  the  teacher.  It  is  not  intended  that  this, 
as  a  textbook,  should  entirely  supplant  the  lecture  work. 
On  the  contrary,  nearly  every  lecture  may  be  supple- 
mented to  advantage  and  so  give  opportunity  for  origi- 
nality and  the  greatest  effectiveness.  It  will  be  readily 
understood  that  certain  subjects  are  of  very  great  im- 
portance in  some  states,  and  unimportant  in  others.  Each 
teacher  should  add  what  lie  thinks  best  for  his  grade  of 
pupils  and  his  local  needs. 

When  time  permits  much  time  can  be  profitably  spent 
on  more  extended  anatomy  work,  especially  for  students 
who  wish  advanced  live  stock  work.  It  can  be  readily 
illustrated  and  easily  impressed  :  for  instance,  that  smooth 
or  rough  hips  depend  upon  a  fraction  of  an  inch,  more  or 
less,  on  the  external  angle  of  the  ilium  ;  and  that  high 
or  low  withers  are  merely  slight  variations  in  the  length 
of  the  superior  spinus  processes  of  the  dorsal  vertebrae  ; 
and  that  conformation  depends  upon  the  bon}^  skeleton 
and  muscular  developments. 

Much  time  with  considerable  actual  practice  should  be 


PREFACE  TO  SECOND  EDITION  vii 

given  to  the  study  of  unsoundness ;  to  common  forms  of 
lameness,  and  the  types  of  conformation  which  tend 
toward  these  unfortunate  conditions.  Common  irregulari- 
ties of  the  teetli  are  not  discussed  in  these  pages  at  all, 
and  3-et  the  general  subject  is  an  important  and  practical 
one,  and  one  that  is  easily  illustrated  in  classroom.  These 
are  given  merely  as  suggestions  and  to  impress  the  fact 
that  this  text  is  not  expected  to  cover  the  entire  field,  of 
veterinary  teaching  for  all  agricultural  colleges. 

I  respectfully  suggest  that  teachers  should  insist  upon 
careful  study  of  illustrations.  In  my  own  class  work 
I  find  the  constant  difficulty  that  students  glance  at  the 
illustrations  carelessly  and  hurriedly,  and  thus  fail  to  get 
the  benefit  which  they  might  easily  have  from  good  illus- 
trations. Students  may  be  selected  at  random  and  asked 
to  draw  upon  the  board,  from  memory,  illustrations  from 
the  lesson  for  that  day.  After  a  few  practice  lessons  of 
this  kind,  students  easily  learn  how  to  study  textbook 
illustrations. 

M.   H.   KEYNOLDS. 

University  op  Mixxesota, 
October,  1903. 


PEEFACE   TO    SECOXD    EDITIOjS" 

I  WISH  to  express  my  appreciation  of  the  very  kind 
reception  which  has  been  given  to  Veterinary  Studies 
by  my  fellow  teachers  in  agricultural  colleges,  by  agri- 
cultural papers,  and  by  stockmen. 

There  have  been  no  material  alterations  in  this  edition, 

but  I  am  planning  to  embody  criticisms  and  suggestions 

in  revising  for  the  third  edition. 

M.  H.  REYNOLDS. 
University  of  Mixxesota, 
January,  1904. 


PREFACE   TO   SEVENTH   EDITION 

I  WISH  to  thank  the  many  fellow  teachers  who  have 
shown  appreciation  by  continuing  to  use  this  textbook 
in  spite  of  very  evident  need  of  revision.  I  wish  to  em- 
phasize again  the  fact  that  Veterinary  Studies  is  in- 
tended to  quite  an  extent  as  a  teacher's  outline.  It  is  not 
intended  to  give  full  instruction.  Each  teacher  must  add 
material  as  he  may  think  wise,  or  leave  out  entire  subjects 
according  to  local  needs  and  his  pupils.  I  find  that  very 
many  joupils  taking  veterinary  class  work  in  agricultural 
schools  need  badly  review  work  on  i)hysiology.  The  neces- 
sity for  a  practical  working  knowledge  of  physiology  is 
self-evident.  Some  knowledge  of  anatomy  is  plainly  neces- 
sary in  order  that  disease  processes  may  be  located,  and 
that  students  may  understand  animal  conformation.  Some 
elementary  pathology  is  absolutely  necessar}^  in  order  that 
pupils  may  have  some  understanding  of  what  disease  pro- 
cesses really  are. 

Causes  and  prevention.  Causes  and  prevention  of  dis- 
eases should  be  considered  as  of  paramount  importance, 
and  only  a  comparatively  few  careful!}^  selected  diseases 
should  be  presented.  Tliese  should  be  diseases  which  are 
uniform  in  symjitoms  and  history  and  therefore  easily 
recognized,  and  of  such  diseases  only  those  that  are  rather 
easily  and  simply  treated  or  are  preventable. 

There  may  be  perhaps  an  exception  to  this,  and  that 
is  for  students  living  where  stock  owners  do  not  have 
access  to  trained  veterinarians.  In  such  case  it  is  a  matter 
of  plain  common  sense  that  the}'  must  simply  do  the  best 
they  can  for  themselves. 

Credit  is  due  Dr.  H.  T.  Kinsley  for  assistance  in  revis* 
ing  "  copy  "  for  the  chapters  on  pathology. 

M.   H.  EEYNOLDS. 

University  of  Minnesota, 
August,  1910. 

viU 


CONTENTS 

ANATOMY 

LECTUEE  FAOB 

I.  ANATOMY 

Bones.  —  Kinds,  peculiarities,  development,  composition. 
Head.  —  Face,  cranial,  and  hyoid  bones;    dentition  of   horses, 

table;   dentition  of  cattle,  table;   estimating  age  by  teeth; 

original  application 1 

n.  OSTEOLOGY 

Spinal  column.  —  General   characteristics   of  vertebrae.     Cervi- 
cal, dorsal,  lumbar,  sacral,  and  coccygeal  vertebrae. 
Sternum.    Ribs,  practical  application .6 

m.  FRONT  LIMB 

Shoulder,  arm,  forearm,  and  foot — bones  of        ....       10 

IV.  POSTERIOR  LDIB 

Pelvis,  thigh,  leg,  and  foot  —  bones  of ;  original  observations     .      13 

V.  ARTICULATIONS 

General  groups,  examples;    varieties  of  freely  movable;    im- 
movable ;  slightly  movable. 
Structures  at  jointiS;  articulations  described        .        •        •        •      17 

\l.  MUSCULAR   SYSTEM 

Peculiar  property  of  muscle;  kinds,  classification,  parts,  micro- 
scopic structure.     Source  of  heat  and  power,  application         •      21 

Vn.  NERVOUS  SYSTEM 

General  function;  nerve  centers;  nerve  fibers. 

Cerebrospinal  system.  —  Brain,  cranial  nerves,  spinal  cord,  spinal 

nerves. 
Sympathetic  system.  —  Composition,  ganglia,  sympathetic  nerves, 

practical  application 25 

is 


X  CONTENTS 

LECTURS  PASS 

Vin.  CIRCULATION 

Blood.  —  Circulatory  apparatus;    course   of  the  blood,  blood 

supply  of  the  body,  principal  arteries  and  veins. 
Lymphatic  xystem.  —  Parts,  function    ......       32 

IX.  RESPIRATION 

Definition,  stages,  jiarts,  purpose,  respiratory  apparatus,  prac- 
tical application 38 

X.  DIGESTIVE  APPARATUS 

Definition,  organs  of  digestion,  anatomy  of  each,  practical  exer- 
cise   4^ 

XL  PHYSIOLOGY  OF  DIGESTION 

Definition  of  digestion  ;  food  groujis,  course  and  history  of  each. 
Practical  application  and  suggestions 49 

XIL        URINARY   ORGANS   AND   MAMMARY   GLANDS 

Urinary  organs.  —  Structure,  function,  and  physiological  opera* 
tion  of  each. 

Mammary  glands.  —  Anatomy,  function,  products,  blood  sup- 
ply, nerve  supply,  and  nerve  control,  practical  suggestions  53 

XIIL  FOOT 

Bones,  horny  hoof,  matrix,  i^lantar  cushion,  back  tendons,  good 
foot  described,  practical  application 59 


PATHOLOGY 

XIV.  PATHOLOGY 

Hj'persemia  (congestion),  inflammation,  fever,  heat  production 
and  expenditure,  symptoms  of  fever,  results  of  fever     .        .      65 

XV.  PATHOLOGY 

Hemorrhage,  dropsy,  hypertrophy,  atrophy,  degenerations  and 
infiltrations,  collapse,  syncope,  death 70 

XVL  WOUNDS 

Healing,  and  development  of  new  blood  vessels. 
Healing  of  osseous,  cartilage,  and  nerve  tissues.    New  tissue. 
How  skin  re-covers  a  surface 73 


CONTENTS  Xi 


UCTPBS  TABM 

XVII.  WOUNDS 

Bad  treatment,  bleeding,  sewing,  bandaging,  washing,  dry 
treatment,  maggots,  suggestions 77 


CAUSE  AND  PREVENTION 

XVIII.  CAUSES  AND  PREVENTION  OF  DISEASE 

Contagium.  —  The  individual  bacterium,  plagues  in  history, 
dissemination,  development  of  outbreaks,  body  entrance, 
method  of  injury,  destroyed  in  nature,  suggestions     .        ,       81 

XIX  DISINFECTION 

Purpose,  sources  of  infection,  thoroughness,  attendants,  how 
to  burn  a  carcass.  Common  disinfectants,  and  methods 
of  disinfection 86 

XX.  CAUSES  AND  PREVENTION  OF   DISEASE 

Heredity.  —  Theory,  in-and-in  breeding. 

Air.  —  Impurities,  relation  to  disease,  standards  of  purity, 
ventilation,  practical  application 90 

XXI.  CAUSES   AND   PREVENTION   OF   DISEASE 

Ventilation.  —  Stable  air,  necessity,  unventilated  air,  natural 
forces,  air  currents,  outlets,  amount  needed         ...      93 

XXII.  CAUSES   AND   PREVENTION   OF   DISEASE 

Ventilation.  —  Space,  location,  stable  construction  for  ventila- 
tion      loa 

XXIII.  CAUSES  AND  PREVENTION  OF  DISEASE 

Food.  —  Excess,  deficiency,  bulk,  quality,  balance,  intervals, 

parasites,  changes. 
Water.  —  Excess,    deficiency,    parasites,    sewage,    intervals, 

practical  application 103 

XXIV.  CAUSES  AND  PREVENTION  OF  DISEASE 

Parasitism.  —  General  classes,  how  nourished,  effect  on  host, 
general  prevention,  general  treatment. 

External  parasites.  —  Mite  diseases,  causes,  classification,  gen- 
eral treatment,  general  prevention 107 


xii  CONTENTS 

XXV.  DISEASES  —  PARASITIC 

Sheep  scab.  —  Body  scab,  foot  scab,  head  scab,  general  pre- 
vention, general  symptoms,  treatment,  dips,  dipping, 
disinfection 112 

XXVI.  DISEASES  — PARASITIC 

Home  mange.  —  Cause,  symptoms,  treatment. 

Cattle  mange.  —  Cause,  symptoms,  treatment        •        •        •     121 

XXVII.  EXTERNAL  PARASITES 

Lice,  ticks,  ringworm. 

hiternal  parasites.  —  Bots,  roundworms,  tapeworms,  treat- 
ment     125 

XXVIIL  NODULE  DISEASE  OF  SHEEP 

General  history,  cause,  injury,  diagnosis,  treatment,  pre- 
vention         131 

XXIX.  STOMACH  WORM   (SHEEP) 

Parasite,  life  history,  symptoms,  treatment.  Drenching 
sheep,  management  of  infected  flock,  prevention       .        .    136 

XXX.       VERMINOUS   BRONCHITIS,  NASAL   GRUB, 
AND   CATARRH 

Verminous  bronchitis.  —  Definition,  life  history  of  parasite, 

symptoms,  treatment,  prevention. 
Nasal  grub.  —  Cause,  life  histoiy,  symptoms,  treatment. 
Catarrh.  —  Simple  catarrh  defined,  causes,  prevention,  treat- 
ment     141 

INFECTIOUS  DISEASES 

XXXL  ACTINOMYCOSIS 

Description,  relation  to  public  health,  parts  involved,  treat- 
ment    146 

XXXIL  '  ANTHRAX 

History,  distribution,  susceptible  animals,  cause,  transmis- 
sion, introduction  and  spread,  incubation,  symptoms, 
post  mortem,  diagnosis,  treatment 152 

XXXIII.       SYMPTOMATIC   ANTHRAX   (BLACKLEG) 

Definition,  cause,  symptoms,  post  mortem,  prevention,  vao 
cination 157 


CONTENTS  Xlli 

LECTURB  PAGB 

XXXIV.         FOOT  ROT  OF  SHEEP 

Symptoms,  differential  diagnosis,  simple  foot  rot,  treat- 
ment, prevention,  foul  foot,  treatment   ....    160 

XXXV.  FOOT-AND-MOUTH  DISEASE 

Definition,  symptoms,  dissemination,  prevention,  treat- 
ment         W4 

XXXVI.  GLANDERS 

Susceptible  animals,  causes,  incubation,  symptoms,  acute 
cases,  chronic  cases,  farcy,  diagnosis,  prevention,  treat- 
ment         166 

XXXVn.  HEMORRHAGIC   SEPTICEMIA 

Etiology,    history    and    development,     symptoms,    post 

mortem,  summaiy,  meningeal  type. 
Brief  study  by  table  of  hemorrhagic  septicaemia,  anthrax, 

symptomatic  anthrax,  and  cerebrospinal  meningitis      .    171 

XXXVIII.  HOG  CHOLERA 

Definition,  symptoms,  autopsy,  cause,  how  scattered,  vac- 
cination, comnion  mistakes 171 

XXXIX.  TEXAS   FEVER 

Economic  importance,  causes,  transmission,  suscepti- 
bility, incubation,  symptoms,  post  mortem,  prognosis, 
treatment,  prevention,  tick  extermination,  preventive 
inoculation 187 

XL.  TUBERCULOSIS 

Prevalence,  cause,  modes  of  infection,  structures  affected, 
symptoms,  diagnosis,  treatment,  prevention,  summary, 
disposition  of  tuberculous  cattle 195 

XLL  TUBERCULIN  TEST 

Tuberculin,  effect  on  health,  accuracy,  method  of  test, 
importance  to  breeders,  diagnosis        ....    202 

DIETETIC  DISEASES 

XLH.  AZOTURIA 

Prevalence,  history,  parts  affected,  duration,  causes,  symp- 
toms, prevention,  treatment,  prognosis  ....    207 


231 


xiv  CONTENTS 

LECTtTBK  PAG« 

XLin.  HOVEN  OR  BLOAT 

Definition,  causes,  symptoms,  treatment,  preveutioD     •        •    213 

XLIV.  CHOKE 

Explanation,  symptoms,  prevention,  treatment    .        .        .    217 

XLV.  HEAVES 

Definition,  cause,  symptoms,  prevention,  post  mortem,  treat- 
ment    221 

XLVI.  LAMINITIS  OR  FOUNDER 

Definition,  symptoms,  cause,  pathology,  termination,  treat- 
ment   225 

XLVII.  LYMPHANGITIS 

Cause,  symptoms,  prevention,  treatment       .        .        •        *    223 

XLVIII.      PARTURIENT  PARALYSIS   (MILK  FEVER) 

Causes,  Schmidt  theory,  symptoms,  prevention,  treatment, 
prognosis 

MISCELLANEOUS  DISEASES 

XLJX.  LAMENESS 

Definition,  locating  the  lameness. 

From  bony  diseases.  —  Bony  growths,  splints,  spavins,  ring- 

bones,  sidebones,  etc. 
From  synovial  membranes.  —  Wind  puffs,  bog  spavins,  thor- 

oughpins,  open  joint,  curb,  capped  hock    ....    237 

L.  SOUNDNESS 

Unsoundness.  —  Definition,  normal  conditions ;  methods  of 
examination,  common  forms  of  unsoundness     .        .        .    243 

U.  COMMON  DISEASES  OF  SWINE 

Rheumatism,  posterior  paralysis,  congestion  of  the  lungs, 
quinsy  —  cause,  symptoms,  treatment  of  each.  Drench- 
ing  swine    ...•• 249 

OBSTETRICS 

UL  OBSTETRICS 

Organs  described,  normal  periods  of  gestation. 
Accidents   of  prer/nancy.  —  Sporadic    abortions,    infectious 
abortions,  preventive  treatment,  symptoms,  results  .        .    253 


CONTEXTS  XV 

LEcnrBB  PAUE 

Lin.  INFECTIOUS  ABORTION 

Causes,  dissemination,  infection,  effect,  diagnosis,  prevention, 
management  of  aborting  herd,  disinfection,  medical  treat- 
ment          258 

UV.  OBSTETRICS 

Accidents  of  pregnancy.  —  Retention  of  fetus,  volvulus,  or  twist. 

Accidents  of  parturition.  —  Germ  infection,  inflammation  of  the 
uterus,  retention  of  the  afterbirth,  hemorrhage.  Garget, 
cause,  symptoms,  prevention,  treatment 264 

LV.  OBSTETRICS 

Difficult  parturition,  nature's  plan,  normal  presentations,  causes 
of  difiiculty,  common  faulty  presentations,  aid,  suggestions, 
various  operations,  Caesarian  section 272 


MEDICINES 

LVI.  COMaiON  MEDICIXES 

Common  measurements;   giving  medicines.     Common  medi- 
cines, as  to  physiological  effects,  doses  and  uses     .        .        .    278 

LVU.  COMMON  MEDICINES 

Certain  common  medicines,  as  to  physiological  effects,  dases, 
and  uses 2S2 


ILLUSTRATIONS 


Fia. 
1. 
2. 
3. 
4. 
5. 
6. 
7. 
8. 
9. 

10. 

11. 
1-J. 
l:{. 
U. 
15. 
16. 
17. 
IS. 

10. 
•20. 
21. 
22. 
23. 
24. 
25. 
26. 
27. 
28. 
29. 
30. 
31, 


Clarke  . 
Clarke 


Chaitrcau 
Chauveau 


Skeleton.     B.A.I. 

Horse  Skull.     Chauveau    .... 
Teeth  of  Horse  6  Years  Old,  Lower  Jaw 
Teeth  of  Horse  8  Years  Old,  Lower  Jaw. 
Teeth  of  Horse  20  Years  Old,  Lower  Jaw. 
Grinding  Surface  of  Molars.     Huidekoper 
Typical  Cervical  Vertebra.     Chauveau     . 
Typical  Dorsal  Vertebra.     Front  View. 
Typical  Lumbar  Vertebra.     Front  View, 
Lateral  View  of  the  Sacrum.     Chauveau 
Anterior  Limb  of  the  Horse.     Chauveau 
Posterior  Limb  of  the  Horse.     Chauveau 
Voluntary  Muscle.     Reynolds  .... 

Muscle  Fibers.     Hewes 

Xerve  Cells  and  Nerve  Fibers.     After  Chauveau 

Cerebrospinal  Nervous  System.     Ma(jnin 

Spinal  Cord  and  Brain  in  Diagram.     Reynolds 

Relation  of  the  Sympathetic  and  Cerebrospinal  Systems, 
Diagi'ammatic.     Chauveau 

Circulation,  General  View.     Magnln 

Circulation,  Diagrammatic.     Xo.  1,  Reynolds;  No.  2,  after  Oi 

Respiration  in  Diagram.     Reynolds 

Stomach  of  the  Horse.     External  and  Internal  Views.     CJu 

Stomach  of  the  Cow.     After  Chauveau    . 

Section  of  Horse  Kidney.     Chauveau 

LTinary  Apparatus  in  Diagram.     Reynolds 

One  Quarter  and  Teat  of  the  Cow's  Udder.     Thanhoffer 

:Milk  Vesicles  and  Outlet  Ducts.     Chauveau 

Bones  of  the  Horse's  Foot.     Chauveau    . 

The  Hoof.     Chauveau       .         .         . 

The  Hoof  Matrix.     Chauveau  . 

Badly  Treated  Wire  Wound.     Reynolds  . 

General  Groups  of  Bacteria.     Reynolds    . 

xvii 


^1rtlv 


•erlon 


PAGB 

1 

2 

3 

3 

4 

4 

6 

6 

7 

8 

11 

14 

21 

22 

25 

27 

29 

30 

34 

36 

39> 

44 

46 

53 

55 

56- 

57 

59< 

61 

6:3- 

78 

83 


XVlll 


ILLUSTRATIONS 


FIG. 

33.  Ventilation.     Paige  . 

34.  Ventilation.     Paige 

35.  Cupola  Ventilation.     Wing 

36.  Ventilation.     Paige 

37.  Ventilation.     Paige 

38.  Mange  Mite.     Neuman 

39.  Cattle  Louse.     Female.     Neuman     . 

40.  Plain  Case  of  Sheep  Scab 

41.  Sheep  Scab  Mites.     Curtice,  Lugger,  Petit 

42.  Sheep  Scab  and  Enlarged  Proboscis.    Neuman 

43.  Horse  Botfly  and  Larva.     Neuman  . 

44.  Horse  Bots  and  Botfly.     B.A.I. 

45.  Common  Tapeworm  of  Sheep.     Curtice 

46.  Nodule  Disease.     Reynolds 

47.  Stomach  Worm  on  Tip  of  Grass  Blade.     Ransom 
4S.  Sheep  Gadfly.     Brauer      .... 

49.  Actinomycosis  —  Lumpy  Jaw.     Reynolds 

50.  Actinomycosis  —  Lumpy  Jaw.     Reynolds 

51.  Actinomycosis  —  Lumpy  Jaw.     Reynolds 

52.  Bacterium.  Anthracis.     Reynolds 

53.  Foot  Rot.     Sheep.     Williams   . 

54.  Glanders  —  Farcy.     Reynolds  . 

55.  Glanders  —  Farcy.     Reynolds  . 

56.  Glanders  —  Farcy.     Reynolds  . 

57.  Hemorrhagic  Septicaemia.     Reynolds 

58.  Hemorrhagic  Septicaemia.     Reynolds 

59.  Hemorrhagic  Septicaemia.  Reynolds 
€0.  Hemorrhagic  Septicaemia.  Reynolds 
■6L  Hog  Cholera.     Reynolds   . 

62.  Hog  Cholera.     Reynolds  . 

63.  Hog  Cholera.     Reynolds  . 

64.  Hog  Cholera.     Reynolds  . 

65.  Texas  Fever  Tick.     Pettit 

66.  Bovine  Tuberculosis.     Reynolds 

67.  Bovine  Tuberculosis.     Reynolds 

68.  Bovine  Tuberculosis.     Reynolds 

69.  Bovine  Tuberculosis.     Reynolds 

70.  Trocar  and  Cannula 
7L  Showing  where  to  tap  for  Bloat.     Reynolds 

72.  AVire  for  relieving  Choke.     Reynolds 

73.  A  Foundered  Hoof.    B.A.I.     . 


ILLUSTRATIONS  xix 


PAGE 


74.  Parturient  Paralysis.    Reynolds 232 

75.  Parturient  Paralysis.    Reynolds 233 

76.  Parturient  Paralysis.     Reynolds 234 

77.  Ringbones.     Reynolds 238 

78.  Sidebones.     Reynolds 241 

79.  Spavins.     Two  Types.    Reynolds 244 

80.  Xavicular  Disease.     Reynolds 247 

81.  Generative  Organs  of  the  Alare.     Fleming 254 

82.  Fetus  and  Fetal  Membranes  of  the  Cow  at  Mid-pregnancy.    Fleming  256 

83.  Bovine  Cotyledons.     Fleming 265 

84.  Presentations.     B.A.I 275 

85.  Holding  Horse's  Head  for  Drenching.     Reynolds    ....  279 

86.  Throwing  Cattle.     Reynolds 283 


VETERINAET  STUDIES 


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YETERKs^ARY  STUDIES 


LECTURE    I 
ANATOMY 

Definition. — Anatomy  is  the  science  which  treats  of  forms, 
structures,  and  relations  of  body  organs.  These  organs  are 
divided  for  study  into  groups  as  follows:  bones,  muscles, 
joints,  nervous  S3'stem,  circulatory  apparatus,  respirator}' 
apparatus,  urinar}'  apparatus,  and  digestive  apparatus. 

OSTEOLOGY,   BONES 

Kinds.  —  Bones  are  classified  as  long,  short,  flat,  and 
irregular. 

Long  bones,  more  or  less  elongated  in  form,  medullary 
canal  in  shaft,  found  in  limbs;  example  —  humerus,  femur, 
radius,   and  tibia. 

The  short  l)ones  are  usually  short  in  form,  as  the  name 
implies.  They  have  no  medullary  canal;  example  —  carpals 
and  tarsals. 

Flat  bones  are  those  Hke  the  bones  of  the  skull  and  the 
ribs,  which  consist  of  two  plates  of  hard  iDony  tissue 
connected  by  spongy  bone. 

Irregular  bones  are  usuall}'  found  in  the  median  line  of 
the  bod}*;   example  —  vertebrae. 

Peculiarities.  —  Those  used  in  describing  and  recognizing 
bones  are:  elevations,  depressions,  borders,  surfaces,  angles, 
and  extremities. 


VETERINARY  STUDIES 


Development.  —  Bones  develop  either  in  cartilage  or 
membrane.  The  long  leg  bones  develop  from  cartilage; 
the  flat  skull  bones  develop  from  membrane. 


Fig.  2. — Horse's  Skull. 

1,  Premaxillary  bone;  2,  upper  incisors;  3,  upper  canine  teeth;  4,  superior 
maxillary  hone;  7,  nasal  bones;  8,  lachrymal  bone;  11,  malar  bone;  12,  upper 
molar  teeth  ;  13,  frontal  bone  ;  1-5,  temporal  bone  ;  16,  parietal  bone  ;  17,  occipital ; 
20,  styloid  processes;  24,  parietal  crest  :  25,  inferior  maxilla  ;  26,  inferior  molars  ; 
28,  inferior  canine  teeth  ;  29,  inferior  incisor  teeth. 


Composition.  —  Xormal  bone  of  mature  aiiimnls  contains 
about  one  third  animal  matter  and  two  thirds  mineral 
matter.  Animal  matter  gives  elasticity ;  the  mineral  matter 
gives  firmness  and  strength. 

Groups.  —  Bones  are  divided  into  the  following  groups 
for  stud}':  Head,  spinal  column,  sternum,  ribs,  front  limb, 
hind  linilj. 

Head  consists  of  20  bones,  as  follows:  cranium  1),  hyoid  1, 
face  16. 

Cranium  9:  occipital  1,  frontal  2,  parietal  2,  temporal  2, 
ethmoid  1,  sphenoid  1. 

Ilnokl  1. 

Face  Ki:  superior  maxillary  2,  inferior  maxillary  1,  pre- 
maxillary 2,  palate  2,  malar  2,  lachrymal  2,  nasal  2, 
vomer  1,  inferior  turbinated  2. 


ANATOMY 


Teeth.  —  IMares  have  on  each  jaw  :  0  incisors  and  12  molars, 
or  in  aU   IS.     Geklino;s  and  stalHons  have,  in  addition,  2 


Fig.  3.  —  Six  Years,  Lower  Jaw. 


Fig.  4. — Eight  Years,  Upper  Jaw. 
Note.  —  Figures  4  and  5  are  drawn  on  different  scales. 

canines  or  tushes,  making  20  teeth  on  each  jaw.  All  the 
incisors  and  the  first  three  molars  are  temporary  and  are 
replaced.  The  last  three  come  in  as  permanent  teeth, 
according  to  the  following  table. 

Cattle  have  8  incisors  on  the  lower  jaw  and  none  on  the 
upper.  Their  molars  are  like  those  of  horses  in  number,  and 
the  first  three  are  also  temporary. 


VETERINARY  STUDIES 


Dentition  of  Horses     (Chauveau) 


Kind 


Number 


When  Appeab 


When  Replaced 


Incisors    .     . 
Canines    .    . 

Molars     .    . 


Center 
Middle 
Corner 

"ist  . 
2d  . 
3d  . 
4th. 
5th. 
6th. 


Birth  .  .  . 
4  to  6  weeks . 
6  to  9  months 
4  to  5  years  . 
Birth  \  .  . 
Birth  .  .  . 
Birth  .  .  . 
10  to  12  months 
2  years  .  . 
4  to  5  years  . 


zy> 

4>i 

2^ 
2^ 
3H 


j'ears. 
years. 
3'ears. 

years, 
years, 
years. 


Age  of  horses  by  the  teeth.  —  Tell  by  shedding  and  appearance  of  the 
teeth  up  to  4  years,  according  to  table.  Cups  wear  out  of  center  pair  of 
incisors  of  lower  jaw  at  about  6  years ;  cups  wear  out  of  middle  pair  of 
incisors  at  about  7  years ;  and  cups  wear  out  of  corner  incisors  at  about  S ; 


1  lo.  o.  —  Twenty  Years,  Loweu  J.^^w. 


B 


Fig.  6.  —  Grinding  Surfaces  of  Molars. 

Horse  six  to   seven  years  old.    A,   right-hand    superior    molars;    B,  left-hand 
inferior  molars. 


ANATOMY  5 

cups  wear  out  of  center  incisors  of  upper  jaw  at  9,  middle  pair  at  11,  and 
corner  incisors  at  about  12.  Quality  of  the  teeth,  kind  of  food,  and  the 
way  the  teeth  fit  together  to  be  considered.  They  may  wear  very  un- 
evenly and  be  very  deceptive.  The  upper  incisors  are  much  less  reliable 
as  to  disappearance  of  cups  than  are  the  lower. 

Original  application.  —  The  student  should  now  make 
original  observations,  recording  freely  by  notes  and  draw- 
ings. He  should  study  the  part  played  by  individual  bones 
or  groups  of  bones  in  determining  the  size  and  shape  of  the 
head. 

Study,  e.g.,  the  nasal,  frontal,  superior  maxillary,  and 
inferior  maxillary  bones.  Note  what  relation  they  bear  to 
shape  of  nose,  width  between  the  eyes,  "  coarseness  "  of 
the  head,  and  width  between  bones  of  the  lower  jaw. 

Spend  as  much  time  as  possible  in  practice  at  estimating 
horses'  ages  by  their  teeth.  Note  especially  temporary  and 
permanent  teeth  present,  ''cups,"  shape  of  wearing  surface, 
etc. 


LECTURE  II 


OSTEOLOGY 


Fig.' 


-  Typical  Cervical 
Vertebra. 


A,  Head  of  the  body ; 
B,  transverse  process  ;  C,  ar- 
ticular process  ;  D,  superior 
spinous  process. 


Spinal  column.  —  This  consists  of  about  52  pieces,  called 

vertebrae.     There  are  7  cervical,  18  dorsal,  G  lumbar,  5  sacral, 

15  to  18  coccygeal. 

There  are  certain  general  charac- 
teristics possessed  by  all  vertebra?, 
regardless  of  location  in  the  spinal 
column;  for  instance,  each  vertebra 
has  a  body,  arch,  and  spinal  canal. 
The  hodii,  convex  in  front  and  con- 
cave behind,  is  below  the  spinal 
canal.  The  head  of  the  body  of  each 
vertebra  is  rounded  and  fits  perfectly 
into   the   cavity   of  the   rear  end    of 

the  preceding  vertebra.     Between  each  pair  is  considerable 

cartilage,   which   serves   the   purpose 

of  an  elastic  pad. 

The  arch  incloses  the  sides  and  top 

of  the  spinal  canal.      (1)  The    trans- 
verse processes  are  the  portions  which 

jiroject    horizontally    on    each    side 

from    the    arch.      (2)    The    superior 

process  projects  upward  from  the  top 

of  the  arch.      (3)  The  articular  pro- 
cesses   are    four   in    number:    two  in 

front,   and  two  behind.     The   former 

articulate    with    the    rear    articular 

l)rocesses  of  the  preceding  vertebra, 

and  the  latter  with  the  front  processes  of  the  succeeding. 

These  make  up  the  bony  framework  of  the  neck. 

6 


Fig.  8.  —  Typical    Dorsal 
Vertebra,  Front  View. 

1 ,    Head    of     the    body ; 

2,  superior  spinous  process  ; 

3,  transverse  process. 


OSTEOLOGY  7 

Cervical  vertebrae.  —  There  are  7  cervical  vertebrcT,  all 
agreeing  in  certain  general  characters.  The  body  is  long^ 
thick,  and  has  an  inferior  spine  projecting  downward  from 
its  under  surface.  The  superior  processes  are  long  from 
before  to  behind,  and  together  form  a  long  rough  line.  The 
transverse  processes  are  also  long  from  before  to  behind. 
In  these  characteristics  the  cervical  vertebrae  differ  radically 
from  the  others. 

Special  cervical  vertehrce.  —  There  are  certain  cervical  ver- 
tebrae which  have  marked  individual  peculiarities.  The 
atlas,  immediately  supporting  the  head,  has  a  small  thin 
body  with  no  head,  but  instead,  two  surfaces  for  articulat- 
ing with  the  occipital  bone.  The  axis  is  long,  and  has,  in 
place  of  the  liead,  a  peculiar  projection  known  as  "odon- 
toid process."  This  process  is  shaped  somewhat  like  a 
tooth.  Hence  the  name.  The  superior  process  is  long  from 
front  to  rear.  The  seventh  cervical  vertebra  has  a  long 
superior  process,  somewhat  resembling  those  of  dorsal  verte- 
brae. It  also  presents  a  small  articular  surface  for  articula- 
tion with  the  head  of  the  first  rib. 

Dorsal  vertebrae.  —  These  are  located  in  the  back,  and 
are  18  in  number.  They  also  have  certain  general  char- 
acteristics. The  body  is  short.  There  are  four  articular 
cavities,  two  in  front  and  two  behind  for  the  heads  of  the 
ribs.  Superior  processes  are  long  and  flat  from  side  to  side, 
transverse  processes  short  and  small.  None  of  the  dorsal 
vertebra^  differ  very  markedly  from  this  general  type. 

Lumbar  vertebrae.  —  These  make 
up  the  framework  of  the  loin.  In 
general  the  body  is  longer  and  wider 
than  the  dorsal.  The  superior  pro- 
cesses   are    also    shorter.      The    trans-     Fig.    9.  — Typical    Lumbar 

11  n    X  Vertebra,  Front  View. 

verse   processes    are   also   long,    flat,       ,   ^  ,      „  ,     ■,    ^ 

\  ^'  '         1,  Body;   2,  head;   3,  su- 

and  thin.  perior    spinous     process;     4, 

Sacrum.  —  This       constitutes      the      t-nsverse  process. 

croup.     It  consists  of  five  pieces,  united   in  the   adult.     It 
articulates   with  the  last  lumbar   vertebra   in    front,    with. 


8  VETERINARY   STUDIES 

the  first  coccygeal  vertebra  behind,  and  with  the  pelvis  on 
each  side.  This  portion  of  the  spinal  column  is  triangu- 
lar, with  the  base  forward. 

Coccygeal  vertebrae.  —  These  are 
15  to  18  in  number,  and  located  in 
the    tail.      The    spinal    canal    is  de- 

FiG.  10. -Lateral  View  OF    ypJoped     [^^    the    first     three     Or    foUr. 
THE  Sacrum. 

1,   Spinal  canal,   anterior    ^^e   first   one  is  Occasionally  united 

portion ;   3,  superior  spinous    to  the  SacrUlll. 

processes.  _,,  ,_,,  . 

The  sternum.  —  This  is  located 
in  the  front  and  lower  portion  of  the  chest,  and  extends 
from  before  to  behind.  It  consists  of  six  or  seven  pieces 
of  cartilaginous  bone  and  has  distinct  prolongations  of 
cartilage  from  both  the  front  and  rear  ends.  On  each 
side  are  articular  surfaces  for  the  first  eight  ribs.  The 
sternum  is  commonly  called  the  breast  bone. 

Ribs.  —  These  usually  number  18  pairs,  and  are  described 
as  the  first,  second,  third,  etc.,  beginning  with  the  front 
pair.  They  all  articulate  above  with  the  dorsal  vertebrae; 
the  lower  ends  of  the  first  eight  articulate  with  the  sternum 
by  means  of  cartilages.  The  remaining  ten  connect  with 
the  sternum  by  means  of  long  cartilages,  each  of  which  rests 
against  the  preceding  one.  The  ninth,  or  first  asternal,  rib 
is  united  rather  closely  to  the  eighth,  which  articulates  with 
the  sternum. 

The  shaft  shows  external  convex  and  internal  concave 
surfaces  and  two  borders:  anterior  or  front,  and  posterior 
or  rear.  The  superior  or  upper  extremity  shows  a  head  and 
a  small  projection,  the  tuberosity.  These  articulate  with 
the  dorsal  vertebrae  as  already  explained.  Function  of  the 
ribs  is  to  form  a  supporting  and  movable  wall  for  the  chest, 
protecting  the  soft  organs  and  performing  a  very  important 
function  in  opening  the  chest  for  respiration. 

Practical  application.  —  The  student  should  now  study, 
for  himself,  the  part  played  by  each  group  of  vertebrae  in 
determining  the  conformation  of  its  region.  Take,  e.g.  the 
cervical,  dorsal,  lumbar,  and  sacral  groups  and  note  what 


OSTEOLOGY  9 

relation  they  bear  to  length  of  neck,  height  and  shape  of 
withers  and  length  of  back,  width  and  length  of  loin, 
length  and  slope  of  the  croup.  The  student  should  also 
study  the  influence  of  shape  of  rib  upon  width  of  back  and 
shape  of  sides.     Record  fully  by  notes  and  drawings. 


LECTURE  III 
FRONT  LIMB 

This  limb  is  composed  of  20  bones,  and  includes  the- 
shoulder,  arm,  forearm,  and  foot. 

The  shoulder  contains  but  one  bone,  the  scapula,  or  shoulder 
blade.  It  is  triangular  and  situated  at  the  front  and  lower 
portion  of  the  chest  wall.  Its  direction  is  downward  and 
forward,  and  it  articulates  below  with  the  head  of  the  hu- 
merus, or  arm  bone.  The  inner  surface  is  somewhat  con- 
cave. The  external  surface  is  divided  into  two  portions  by 
a  long  ridge  which  extends  lengthwise  of  the  bone.  The 
upper  portion  is  flat  and  thin. 

The  arm  contains  a  single  bone,  the  humerus.  The  hu- 
merus is  a  long  bone.  Its  upper  end  articulates  with  the 
scapula,  and  the  lower  end  with  the  ulna  and  radius.  It 
offers  for  description  a  shaft,  and  upper  and  lower  extremi- 
ties. A  peculiar  feature  of  the  shaft  is  a  sort  of  furrow, 
which  twists  around  the  bone  and  is  known  in  anatomy  as 
the  furrow  of  torsion.  The  superior  extremit}^  shows  a 
rounded  head  which  is  fitted  for  articulation  with  a  cor- 
responding cavity  of  the  scapula. 

The  forearm  contains  the  radius  and  ulna,  which  in  the 
horse  and  cow  are  firmly  united.  The  radius  belongs  to  the 
group  classified  as  long  bones,  and  articulates  with  the  hu- 
merus above  and  the  carpal  bones  below.  The  anterior 
surface  of  this  bone  is  convex  and  smooth;  the  posterior 
surface,  concave.  The  ulna  is  also  along  bone,  located  just 
back  of  the  radius.  The  shaft  is  triangular.  The  up])er 
extremity  shows  a  marked  enlargement  which  is  useful  for 
attachment  of  muscles  and  gives  leverage.      It  also  contains 

10 


FRONT   LIMB 


11 


a  deep  notch  for  articulation  with  the  humerus.  The  in- 
ferior portion  of  this  bone  is  slender  and  more  or  less  pointed, 
containing  at  its  extremity  a  small 
knob. 

The  foot  includes  7  carpals,  3 
metacarpals,  2  sesamoids,  3  pha- 
langes, and  1  navicular. 

The  carpals  consist  of  seven  small, 
short  bones,  and  with  the  articula- 
tion of  the  carpals  to  the  radius 
above,  and  the  metacarpals  below, 
make  up  what  is  commonly  known 
as  the  knee  joint. 

The  metacarpals  are  located  in 
what  is  known  as  the  region  of  the 
cannon.  They  are  three  in  num- 
ber: a  large  one  in  the  middle, 
Avhich  is  long  and  more  or  less  cylin- 
drical; and  one  rudimentary  meta- 
carpal on  each  side.  These  together 
articulate  above  with  the  carpals, 
and  the  large  one  below  with  the 
first  phalanx  and  the  sesamoids. 
The  small  metacarpals  are  com- 
monly known  as  splint  bones. 

The  first  phalanx  is  commonly 
known  as  the  pastern.  It  is  the 
shortest  bone  in  the  body  that  is 
classified  as  a  long  bone.  The  shaft 
shows  an  anterior  convex  surface 
and  a  posterior  surface  which  is 
flattened  and  rough.  The  upper 
extremity  is  marked  by  two  shallow 
cavities,  separated  by  a  median 
groove  and  fitted  for  articulation 
Mith  the  two  convex  surfaces  and  the  median  ridge  which 
mark  the  inferior  extremity  of  the  large  metacarpal.     The 


Fig.  11.  —  Anterior  Limb  op 
THE  Horse. 

O,  Scapula ;  H,  humerus ; 
A,  radius  ;  U,  ulna  ;  C,  carpals  ; 
M,  metacarpals  ;  S,  sesamoids ; 
P,  phalanges. 


12  VETERINARY   STUDIES 

lower  extremity  has  two  articular  surfaces  separated  by  a 
median  groove  like  that  of  the  large  metacarpal. 

The  sesamoids  are  two  small,  somewhat  triangular,  and 
irregular  bones,  placed  side  by  side  just  back  of  the  upper 
part  of  the  pastern  bone.  These  articulate  with  both  the 
large  metacarpal  and  first  phalanx  or  pastern.  They  are 
side  by  side  and  together  form  a  groove  for  the  flexor 
tendons. 

The  second  phalanx,  or  coronet  bone,  is  short  and  some- 
what square  in  form.  It  articulates  with  the  first  plialanx 
above,  and  the  third  phalanx  and  navicular  below.  The 
upper  and  lower  extremities  of  this  bone  resemble  the  upper 
and  lower  extremities  of  the  first  phalanx. 

The  third  phalanx,  or  pedal  bone,  is  pyramidal  in  shape 
and  irregular.  Its  superior  face  shows  two  shallow  cavities 
separated  by  a  median  ridge  fitted  for  articulation  with  the 
second  phalanx.  The  anterior  face  is  convex  and  quite 
rough.  The  inferior  surface  is  the  one  on  which  the  foot 
rests.  It  is  called  the  sole.  The  superior  border  of  the 
anterior  face  has  quite  a  projection  which  is  especially  fitted 
for  the  insertion  of  a  tendon.  This  is  technicall.v  known  as 
the  pyramidal  process.  The  lower  portion  of  this  bone  is 
continued  outward  and  backward  on  each  side  into  what  is 
known  as  the  wing. 

The  navicular  bone  is  located  just  back  of  the  upper  part 
of  the  third  phalanx  and  is  articulated  to  that  bone.  It  is 
long  and  narrow,  and  ]:)laced  transversely.  Its  anterior  sur- 
face articulates  with  the  third  i)halanx.  Its  posterior  sur- 
face is  covered  with  cartilage  and  forms  a  gliding  surface 
for  the  tendon  of  the  deep  flexor  muscle  which  passes  over 
this  bone  to  its  attachment  on  the  sole  or  inferior  surface  of 
the  third  phalanx. 


LECTURE  IV 
POSTERIOR   LIMB 

This  limb  also  contains  20  bones,  and  is  divided  for  study 
into  pelvis,  thigh,  leg,  and  foot. 

The  pelvis  is  divided  into  two  halves,  each  half  being  com- 
posed of  three  bones  closely  united.  These  bones  are  distinct 
in  early  life,  but  become  united  as  the  animal  grows  older. 
The  two  halves  of  the  pelvis  bound  the  pelvic  cavity,  which 
contains  the  rectum,  bladder,  and  sexual  organs.  Each 
half  of  the  pelvis  articulates  with  the  sacrum. 

The  thigh  contains  one  bone,  the  feinur,  which  articulates 
above  with  the  pelvis  and  below  with  the  larger  of  the  two 
leg  bones.  The  femur  belongs  to  the  group  which  we  have 
classified  as  long  bones,  and  is  the  heaviest  and  strongest  bone 
in  the  body.  This  bone  offers  for  study  a  shaft,  upper  and 
lower  extremities.  The  shaft  shows  three  faces,  —  external, 
internal,  and  anterior,  which  are  smooth  and  convex,  and 
a  posterior  face  which  is  rough  and  irregular  on  the  sur- 
face. There  is  a  large  projection  on  the  upper  portion  of 
the  posterior  face  called  the  internal  trochanter.  On  the 
upper  extremity  we  find  a  smooth  rounded  head  which  ar- 
ticulates with  a  deep  cavity  in  the  pelvic  bone  above.  On 
the  external  surface  and  projecting  above  the  head  is  the 
external  or  great  trochanter.  The  inferior  extremity  is 
somewhat  flat  from  side  to  side  and  shows  two  rounded 
surfaces  which  we  will  call  condyles.  These  are  separated 
by  a  deep  groove  known  as  the  trochlea. 

The  leg  contains  three  bones,  —  tibia,  fibula,  and  patella. 

The  tibia  is  a  long  bone  with  a  somewhat  triangular  shaft, 
larger  at  the  upper  than  at  the  lower  end.     It  articulates 

13 


14 


VETERINARY  STUDIES 


above  with  the  femur,  patelhi,  and  fibula,  and  l^elow  with 
the  bones  of  the  hock,  i.e.  the  tarsal   bones.      This  bone, 

like  the  femur,  offers  for  study  a 
distinct  shaft,  upper  and  lower 
extremities. 

The  shaft  of  the  tibia  presents 
three  surfaces, — the  external,  in- 
ternal, and  posterior;  and  three 
borders,  —  the  anterior,  external, 
and  internal.  The  superior  ex- 
tremity shows  in  front  a  depres- 
sion for  one  of  the  ligaments 
which  attaches  the  patella  to  the 
tibia,  a  small  articular  surface 
for  the  fibula  on  the  outer  side, 
two  oval  depressions  with  a 
marked  projection  between  them 
for  articulating  with  the  cond^des 
of  the  femur.  These  are  smooth 
and  covered  with  articular  carti- 
lage. The  inferior  extremity  pre- 
sents an  external  and  an  internal 
tuberosity.  Its  articular  surface 
consists  of  two  shallow  cavities 
and  a  median  ridge,  all  three  of 
which  extend  diagonally  forward 
and  backward. 

This  bone  articulates  with  four 
others;  viz.  femur,  patella,  fibula, 
and  one  of  the  tarsal  bones. 

The  fibula  is  a  small  rudimen- 
tary bone  which  articulates  with 
c,Peivicbone;F  femur;  V, pa-  -j-^g  external  portion  of  the  head 

tella  ;   J,  tibia ;    X,  fibula  ;   T,  tar-  ,    ,       ^ 

sals;  M,  metatarsals ;  S.seaamoids;    of    the    tibia,     and    is    situated    Oil 

,p  aanges.  ^j^^^  external  side  of  that  bone. 

The  patella  is  small,  short,   and  located  in   front  of  the 
lower  extremity  of   the  femur,   and  attached  to  the  tibia 


Fig.  12.- 


—  Posterior  Limb  of 
THE  Horse. 


POSTERIOR  LIMB  15 

below  by  three  strong  ligaments.  It  is  displaced  outward 
when  the  limb  is  in  the  condition  popularly  known  as 
^'stifled."  This  bone  offers  for  study  three  faces:  superior, 
to  which  muscles  are  attached;  the  anterior,  which  is  con- 
vex and  somewhat  irregular;  and  the  posterior,  which  is 
so  shaped  as  to  fit  nicely  into  the  femoral  groove  already 
mentioned. 

The  foot  bears  a  very  close  resemblance  in  its  anatomy 
to  the  corresponding  portion  of  the  anterior  limb,  and  is 
divided  for  study  into  the  tarsus,  metatarsus,  and  digit. 

The  tarsus  is  composed  of  six  or  seven  small  bones,  ar- 
ranged in  two  rows,  the  upper  row  containing  the  astragalus 
and  OS  calcis.  The  lower  row  usually  consists  of  four  small 
bones.  Two  of  these  are  especially  interesting  because  they 
^re  the  common  seat  of  bone  spavin. 

The  astragalus  is  interesting  because  it  furnishes  the  ar- 
ticular surfaces  for  the  lower  end  of  the  tibia. 

The  OS  calcis  is  somewhat  elongated  and  lies  behind  the 
astragalus.  It  corresponds  to  the  prominent  portion  of  the 
human  heel.  The  bones  of  this  region  correspond  to  the 
human  tarsal  bones  making  up  the  ankle. 

The  metatarsus  consists  of  three  bones,  a  large  one  in  the 
center  and  one  small  rudimentary  bone  on  each  side,  i.e.  on 
the  inside  and  outside  of  the  middle  bone.  The  large  meta- 
carpal furnishes  the  supporting  axis  for  this  region  as  in  the 
anterior  limb.  The  shaft  is  fairly  smooth  and  has  a  small 
articular  surface  on  each  side  for  the  rudimentary  meta- 
tarsal. It  is  supposed  that  the  small  metacarpal  and  meta- 
tarsal bones  are  merely  survivals  in  the  process  of  evolution, 
and  that  in  the  earlier  history  of  the  various  animals  from 
which  the  modern  horse  is  descended  these  bones  were 
larger  than  they  are  now,  having  the  same  length  and  the 
same  functijonal  importance  as  the  principal  metacarpal 
and  metatarsal  bones.  The  original  ancestor  of  the  horse 
is  supposed  to  have  had  five  metacarpals  and  five  meta- 
tarsals with  corresponding  digits  or  toes. 

Each  digit  contains  three  bones  known  as  the  phalanges, 


X6  VETERINARY  STUDIES 

the  horse  having  three  phalanges  and  the  cow  six.  These 
are  commonly  known  as  the  first,  second,  and  third  phalanges, 
or  OS  suffraginis,  os  corona,  and  os  pedis.  The  anatomy  of 
this  region  is  discussed  more  fully  in  the  special  chapter  on 
the  foot. 

The  phalanges,  sesamoids,  and  navicular  bones  are  very 
similar  to  the  corresponding  bones  of  the  front  limb,  al- 
ready described. 

Original  observations.  —  The  student  should  now  make 
careful  observations  for  himself  and  record  freely  by  notes 
and  draAvings.  He  should  study  as  before  the  part  i^laA'cd 
by  each  bone  or  closely  associated  groups  of  bones  in  deter- 
mining the  size  and  shape  of  the  part  wherein  it  is  placed. 
For  the  front  limb  study  in  this  relation  the  scapula,  ulna, 
and  radius  combined,  metacarpals,  and  first  and  second 
phalanges.  In  the  hind  limb  study  in  this  wa}^  the  pelvis, 
femur,  tibia,  os  calcis,  and  metatarsals. 

Animal  husbandry  students  should  find  this  apphcation 
of  the  preceding  lessons  helpful  by  giving  a  clear  view  of  the 
anatomical  basis  of  conformation  and  type. 


LECTURE  V 

ARTICULATIONS    OR    JOINTS 

Articulations  are  divided  into  several  groups  for  the 
purpose  of  stud3^  These  groups  are:  immovable,  slightly 
movable,  and  freely  movable. 

Examples :  Immovable,  between  the  skull  bones ;  slightly 
movable,  between  vertebrae;  freely  movable,  between  scapula 
and  humerus. 

Freely  movable.  —  The  freely  movable  articulations  are 
subdivided  according  to  shapes  of  the  articular  surfaces  and 
varieties  of  movement  that  can  be  produced.  These  sub- 
divisions are:  ball-and-socket,  hinge,  pivot,  imperfect  hinge, 
and  gliding. 

The  ball-and-socket  articulation,  of  which  we  find  examples 
at  the  shoulder  and  hip,  is  made  by  a  rounded  head  of  one 
bone  fitted  into  a  rounded  cavity  of  some  other  bone;  for 
instance,  at  the  shoulder  we  have  a  rounded  head  of  the 
humerus  fitted  into  a  glenoid  cavity  of  the  scapula.  At 
the  hip  a  rounded  head  on  the  superior  extremity  of  the 
femur  fits  perfectly  into  the  cotyloid  cavity  of  the  pelvic 
bone.  It  will  be  readily  seen  that  the  ball-and-socket  joint 
permits  the  greatest  variety  of  movements. 

The  hinge  joint  is  made  by  two  articular  surfaces  of  such 
shape  and  so  fitted  together  that  no  lateral  or  rotary  motion 
is  possible.  Only  two  movements  are  allowed  at  joints  of 
this  kind:  fiexion  and  extension.  The  articulation  between 
the  humerus  above  and  the  ulna  and  radius  below  offers  a 
good  example  of  this  kind. 

Pivot  joint  is  one  where  portions  of  two  bones  are  in  con- 
tact in  such  a  way  as  to  permit  of  rotary  motion;  for  ex- 
ample, between  the  atlas  and  axis,  the  rotation  being 
c  17 


18  VETERINARY   STUDIES 

around  the  odontoid  or  toothlikc  processes  of  the  axis. 
Articulations  of  this  kind  permit  of  rotation  only. 

The  imperfect  hinge  joint  is  one  which  permits  of  two 
principal  motions  —  flexion  and  extension,  and  to  a  limited 
extent  some  other  motion,  as  for  instance  rotary  or  lateral 
movement.  We  may  find  a  type  of  this  articulation  be- 
tween the  temporal  and  inferior  maxillary  bones,  or  between 
the  femur  and  tibia.  Articulations  of  this  kind  are  formed 
by  oval  heads  fitting  in  oval  sockets. 

Gliding  joints  permit  only  simple  gliding  movement  be- 
tween the  articular  surfaces.  The  articular  surfaces  in  joints 
of  this  kind  are  more  or  less  nearly  flat. 

Immovable.  —  At  immovable  articulations  the  bones  are 
firmly  united  by  cartilage  and  practically  continuous  with 
each  other. 

Slightly  movable.  —  At  slightly  movable  articulations,  bones 
are  united  by  a  cartilage  which  is  elastic  enough  to  permit 
of  slight  movement,  e.g.  the  common  intervertebral  articu- 
lations. 

At  freely  movable  articulations  the  articulating  bony  sur- 
faces are  each  covered  by  a  thin  layer  of  smooth,  glistening, 
.and  elastic  articular  cartilage.  This  cartilage  gives  a  smooth 
•gliding  surface.  It  also  lessens  jar  by  its  elasticity  and 
protects  the  bony  surface  beneath. 

Structures  at  joints  are  bones,  ligaments,  tendons,  muscles, 
synovial  membrane,  and  synovial  fluid. 

Ligaments  are  either  bands  or  sheets  of  white  or  yellow 
connective  tissue.  The  white  ligaments  are  very  strong  and 
inelastic.  Their  sole  function  is  to  hold  bones  together  at 
articulations.  The  yellow  ligaments  are  composed  of  yellow 
elastic  connective  tissue,  and  are  especially  useful  as  assist- 
ants to  muscles,  particularly  in  supporting  parts  of  the 
body,  like  the  head  of  the  horse,  which  constantly  tend  to 
fall. 

Synovial  membranes  are  sometimes  called  capsules.  These 
are  serous  membranes,  quite  thin,  but  composed  of  two 
layers,    deep   and   superficial.     This   membrane    affords   at 


ARTICULATIONS  OR  JOINTS  19 

each  joint  a  closed  sack  and  is  for  the  purpose  of  secreting 
synovia.  Synovial  membranes  do  not  cover  the  surface  of 
the  articular  cartilage,  as  is  frequently  supposed,  but  usually 
inclose  the  articulations  hke  sacks,  being  attached  at  one 
side  near  the  edge  of  the  articular  surface  of  one  bone,  and 
at  the  other  side  near  the  articular  edge  of  the  other  bone. 
The  membranes  are  usually  also  attached  to  the  inner 
surface  of  the  capsular  or  other  ligaments  of  the  joint. 

Synovia  is  a  viscid  fluid,  shghtly  yellow  or  nearly  color- 
less. It  has  an  oily  feeling,  but  is  not  an  oil  chemically. 
This  fluid  is  quite  rich  in  albumen,  which  gives  it  the  viscid 
property,  and  adapts  it  so  well  for  lubricating  articular  sur- 
faces.    Muscles  and  tendons  are  discussed  in  Lecture  VI. 

Kinds  of  motion  are:  flexion,  or  bending,  in  which  the  two 
articulating  bones  are  brought  nearer  each  other;  exten- 
sion, the  reverse  of  flexion,  by  which  bones  are  straightened 
on  each  other;  adduction,  bringing  the  lower  extremity  of 
the  moving  bone  toward  the  median  line;  abduction,  in 
which  the  lower  end  of  the  moving  bone  is  carried  from  the 
median  line;  circumduction,  in  which  the  articulation  forms 
the  apex  of  a  cone  circumscribed  by  the  moving  bone ;  i'ota- 
tion,  in  which  one  bone  rotates  as  a  pivot  on  another. 

Joints  are  named  according  to  the  bones  involved.  In 
the  limbs  the  upper  bone  is  named  first.  In  the  vertebrae, 
the  anterior  bone  is  named  first. 

DESCRIBING    ARTICULATIONS 

Scapulo -humeral.  —  This  is  a  ball-and-socket  joint,  the 
rounded  head  of  the  humerus  fitting  the  glenoid  cavity  of 
the  scapula. 

Ligaments  at  this  joint  are:  (a)  glenoid,  a  cartilaginous 
rim  around  the  cavity  which  deepens  the  cavity;  (5)  cap- 
sular, a  sort  of  capsule  fitting  around  the  joint  like  a  bag; 
(c)  two  bundles  of  ligament  fibers  in  front  of  the  joint  con- 
necting the  extremities  of  the  scapula  and  humerus. 

Movements. — All  the  motions,  except  true  gliding,   are 


20  VETERINARY  STUDIES 

possible  iit  this  articulation.  The  synovial  membrane  is 
quite  loose  and  affords  a  lining  for  the  capsular  ligament. 

First  interphalangeal  articulation.  —  This  is  an  imperfect 
hinge  joint.  The  articular  surface  of  the  inferior  extremity 
of  the  first  phalanx  is  characterized  by  two  condyles  and  a 
median  groove  which  fit  with  two  shallow  cavities  and  a 
median  ridge  on  the  superior  extremity  of  the  second 
phalanx. 

Ligaments.  —  The  articular  extremities  which  make  up 
this  articulation  are  supported  by  the  following  ligaments 
and  tendons:  in  front  by  the  tendon  of  the  anterior  extensor 
muscle;  on  the  sides  by  two  lateral  ligaments,  one  on  each 
side;  behind  by  the  posterior  ligament  and  the  tendons  of 
the  shallow  and  deep  flexor  muscles  which  pass  over  the 
posterior  of  the  joint.  The  posterior  ligament  is  really  a 
thick  strong  pad  of  fibrocartilage. 

Movements.  —  Flexion  and  extension,  together  with  a 
limited  lateral  movement. 


LECTURE  VI 
MUSCULAR   SYSTEM 

The  peculiar  property  of  muscle  tissue  is  the  power  of  self- 
contraction  and  self-movement.  The  muscles  of  the  animal 
bod}^  are  divided  into  voluntary  and  involuntary. 

Voluntary  muscles  are  under  the  control  of  the  will 
through  the  cerebrospinal  sj^stem. 


Fig.  13. — Voluntary  Muscle.     (M.H.R.) 

1.  Action  of  Muscle  in  Producing  Motion.     Muscle  does  its  work  by  shortening 
its  belly     A    \  Bones;  B,  B,  tendons  ;  C,  belly  of  muscle  ;  E,  articulation  (joint). 

2.  Muscle 'in  Cross  Section.     Showing  "  bundle  of  bundles"  arrangement  of  the 
fibers.     Dots  represent  single  fibers. 

3.  Diagram  of  Simple  Muscle.     B,  B,  Tendons  ;  C,  belly  (lean  meat). 

Involuntary  muscles  act  independently  of  the  will,  and  are 
under  the  control  of  the  sympathetic  nervous  system. 

Voluntary  muscles.  —  What  is  popularly  termed  "  lean 
meat  "  is  composed  of  voluntary  muscles.  These  are  classi- 
fied into  simple,  digastric,  biceps,  triceps,  penniform,  bi- 
penniform. 

A  simple  muscle  is  characterized  by  a  single  belly  with  not 
more  than  one  tendon  at  either  end ;  a  digastric  muscle  has 

21 


22 


VETERINARY  STUDIES 


two  bellies  connected  by  a  tendon ;  a  biceps  muscle  has  two 
tendons  at  one  end ;  a  triceps  muscle  has  three  tendons  at 
one  end;  pen.niform,  when  the  fibers  attach  to  one  side  of  a 
tendon;  hipenniform,  or  featherform,  is  characterized  by 
fibers  attaching  to  two  sides  of  a  continuous  tendon. 

They  are  also  classified 
according  to  function  into 
flexors,  extensors,  abduc- 
tors, adductors,  and  ro- 
tators. 

The  helly  is  the  active 
working  part  (lean  meat). 
The  tendon  merely  serves  to 
give  connection  with  a  dis- 
tant object,  usually  a  bone. 
Tendons  are  strong,  but 
have  no  power  of  contrac- 
tion. The  strength  of  a 
muscle  depends  upon  the 
thickness  of  the  belly.  The 
extent  of  its  movement  de- 
pends upon  the  length  of 
the  belly. 

The  two  ends  of  a  muscle 
are  defined  as  origin  and  insertion.  The  origin  is  the  less 
movable  end;  insertion  the  more  movable  end.  It  may 
happen  at  one  time  that  one  end  is  the  insertion,  at 
another  time  the  origin. 

A  muscle  produces  motion  by  pulling  upon  some  bone 
which  acts  as  a  lever  with  the  fulcrum  at  a  joint. 

The  muscle  fibers  may  attach  directly  to  the  bone,  or  in- 
directly through  tendon  fibers.  The  connection  between  the 
muscle  fiber  and  the  tendon  fiber  is  by  insertion  of  the  coni- 
cal point  of  the  muscle  fiber  into  a  conical  cavity  at  the  end 
of  the  tendon  fiber. 

Structure.  —  The  voluntary  muscle  consists  of  bundles  of 
bundled  fibers;  each  individual  fiber  has  its  own  delicate 


Fig.  14.  —  Muscle  Fibers. 

A,  Bundle  of  voluntary  fibers,  side  view 
B,  C,  D,  Three  involuntary  fibers,  spindle- 
shaped  cells  with  nuclei. 


MUSCULAR  SYSTEM  23 

sheath.  A  number  of  fibers  are  inclosed  within  a  common 
connective  tissue  sheath  and  constitute  a  minute  bundle. 
A  number  of  these  bundles  are  in  turn  wrapped  within  a 
connective  tissue  sheath,  forming  a  larger  bundle.  These 
larger  bundles  may  in  turn  be  wrapped  by  means  of  an- 
other connective  tissue  sheath  into  a  still  larger  bundle. 

The  voluntary  muscle  fiber  is  long,  threadlike,  marked  by 
cross  stripes  which  are  very  close  together,  and  may  end  in 
tendon  fiber.  These  muscle  fibers  are  about  xsVo  of  an 
inch  wide,  but  may  be  ver}^  long. 

Involuntary  muscles.  —  Involuntary  muscle  fibers  are 
merely  long,  spindle-shaped  cells,  which  do  not  end  in  ten- 
don fibers.  They  may  be  arranged  in  the  form  of  small 
bundles,  and  are  usually  in  the  form  of  thin  sheets.  Invol- 
untary muscle  tissue  is  lighter  in  color  than  voluntary,  and 
usually  incloses  hollow  organs  forming  one  of  the  coats  or 
laj^ers.  The  middle  coat  of  the  ston;iach  and  intestines  is 
composed  of  involuntary  muscle  fibers. 

Function.  —  It  is  their  function  to  carry  on  work  which 
could  not  be  intrusted  to  conscious  control  and  with  which 
the  brain  could  not  well  be  burdened. 

Peristaltic  action  of  the  stomach  and  intestines  is  pro- 
duced by  the  rhythmic  action  of  these  muscle  fibers.  The 
heart  muscle  fibers  differ  from  both  the  typical  voluntary 
and  the  typical  involuntary^  fibers.  They  are  striped,  but 
operate  independently  of  the  will. 

Source  of  heat  and  power.  —  Muscular  power  comes  from 
oxidation  of  food  material  in  the  various  tissues  of  the  body, 
particularly  in  the  muscles  and  larger  glands.  During  the 
process  of  oxidation,  carbonic  gas  and  other  materials  are 
developed.  Power  is  increased  by  proper  nourishment,  and 
is  decreased  by  lack  of  nourishment.  Muscles  lose  in 
strength  by  overwork  because  they  are  consumed  more 
rapidly  than  rebuilt.  Muscles  are  paired  in  a  double  sense. 
The  rule  is  that  for  any  given  muscle  there  is  a  correspond- 
ing muscle  on  the  other  side  of  the  body,  and  also  one  or 
more  opposing  muscles  on  its  own  side. 


24  VETERINARY  STUDIES 

The  belly  of  a  muscle  has  a  rich  blood  supply;  the  ten- 
don has  very  little. 

Description  of  voluntary  muscle.  —  The  masseter  muscle 
is  located  on  the  outer  part  of  the  cheek.  Form,  flat,  broad, 
thick,  four-sided.  Origin,  on  the  temporal  and  superior 
maxillary  bones.  Insertion,  on  the  outer  surface  of  the  in- 
ferior maxillar3^  Action,  elevates  the  lower  jaw.  Nerve 
siippli/,  from  a  branch  of  the  fifth  cranial  nerve  (trifacial). 

Application.  —  The  student  should  now  make  practical 
observations  for  himself,  recording  as  in  previous  lectures. 
He  may  select  at  the  teacher's  discretion  several  short  thick 
muscles  and  several  long  slender  ones,  and  should  note 
locations,  attachments,  and  probable  functions,  and  should 
make  a  statement  concerning  the  probable  working  effi- 
ciency of  muscles  of  these  different  types.  This  refers  to 
the  amount  of  load  to  be  moved  and  long  or  short  distance 
of  movement.  This  work  may  be  done  from  charts,  papier- 
mache  models,  or  better,  from  actual  dissection. 

Study  a  skeleton,  and  also  a  horse  in  motion,  and  note 
how  the  horse  pulls,  or  lifts  a  load.  What  occurs  at  the 
articulations  and  how  is  this  brought  about? 

Study  the  location  and  size  of  muscles  and  the  relations 
of  these  considerations  to  body  conformation. 


LECTURE  VII 
NERVOUS   SYSTEM 

Function. — The  peculiar  function  of  the  nervous  system 
is  to  control  the  various  organs  and  systems  of  the  body, 
and  compel  them  to  work  in  harmony.  The  peculiar  prop- 
erty of  nerve  tissue  is  irritability.  The  nervous  system  is 
composed  of  nerve  centers,  nerve  trunks,  nerve  fibers,  and 
nerve  cells. 

A  nerve  center  is  composed  of  ganglion  cells,  nerve  fibers, 
connective  tissue,   and  blood  vessels.     The   function  of  a 


CAB 


Fig.  15.  —  Nerve  Cell  and  Nerve  Fiber. 

A,  Nerve  Cell  with  Several  Poles.  One  pole  continues  as  a  medullated  nerve 
fiber.    A,  Primitive  sheath  ;  B,  medullary  sheath  ;  C,  axis  cylinder. 

2.  Medullated  Nen'e  Fiber.  A,  Primitive  sheath  ;  B,  medullary  sheath  ;  C,  axis 
cylinder ;  D,  node ;  E,  nerve  corpuscle. 

nerve  center  is  to  receive  and  dispose  of  impressions  which 
may  be  brought  to  it,  to  connect  nerve  fibers,  and  in  the 
case  of  the  forebrain  to  originate  conscious  impulses. 

A  nerve  fiber  is  composed  in  some  cases  of  a  central  fiber 

25 


26  VETERINARY   STUDIES 

surrounded  b}'  one  or  two  protoctinij;  slieaths;  in  other 
cases,  of  the  central  fiber  onh'.  Nerve  fibers  conduct  im- 
pulses between  the  various  tissues  and  organs  and  the  nerve 
centers. 

A  nerve  trunk  is  composed  of  an  indefinite  number  of 
nerve  fibers  supported  within  a  common  sheath. 

A  nerve  cell  is  an  irregularly  shaped  microscopic  cell,  hav- 
ing a  varying  number  of  branches,  one  of  which,  in  case  of 
the  motor  cells,  may  continue  to  indefinite  length  as  the 
axis  cylinder  or  central  fiber  previously  mentioned. 

Nerve  fibers  are  classified  according  to  function  into: 
motor,  sensory,  and  special  sense. 

Motor  fibers  are  those  which  convey  impulses  to  the 
muscles  and  control  muscular  action. 

Sensory  fibers  are  those  wdiich  convey  impulses  toward 
brain  centers  and  supply  only  sensation  to  the  structures  to 
which  they  are  distributed. 

Fibers  of  special  sense,  as  in  olfactory,  optic,  and  auditory 
nerves,  transmit  only  sensations  that  pertain  to  the  functions 
of  the  special  senses,  like  hearing  and  sight. 

Many  of  the  cranial  and  facial  nerves  contain  both  motor 
and  sensory  fibers  and  are  therefore  mixed. 

Nerve  trunks  are  therefore  classified  as  motor,  sensory, 
mixed,  and  nerves  of  special  sense,  according  to  the  kind  or 
kinds  of  fibers  composing  them. 

The  nervous  system  is  subdivided  for  study  into  the  cere- 
brospinal and  sympathetic  nervous  systems. 

CEREBROSPINAL    SYSTEM 

The  cerebrospinal  nervous  system  consists  of  the  brain 
and  spinal  cord  together,  with  their  nerves  and  ganglia. 
The  brain  and  spinal  cord  should  be  considered  as  one  com- 
plex organ  located  within  a  continuous  canal,  the  brain  to 
be  considered  as  merely  an  enlargement  at  the  anterior 
extremity.  The  cranial  cavity  should  be  considered  as  an 
enlargement  at  the  anterior  extremity  of  the  spinal  canal. 


NERVOUS  SYSTEM 


27 


The  cranial  bones  may  l)e  considered  as  peculiarly  develoi)ed 
vertebrap. 

The  brain  is  located  in  an  ovoid  cavity,  the  walls  of  which 
are  formed  by  the  cranial  bones.  It  is  covered  by  three 
membranes:  (1)  The  dura  mater  is  tough,  thick,  and  strong, 
and  exactlv  fitted  to  the  inner  surface  of  the  cranial  bones. 


Fig.  16.  —  Cerebro-Spinal  Nervous  System. 

1,  Brain ;  2,  optic  nerve  ;  3,  superior  maxillarj'  nerve ;  4,  inferior  maxillary 
nerve;  5,  pneuniogastrie  ner\-e ;  6,  spinal  cord;  10,  radial  nerve;  11,  median 
nerve;  12,  pneumogastrie  nerve;  13,  portion  of  solar  plexus;  14,  solar  plexus; 
17,  sciatic  trunk  ;  19,  great  sciatic  nerve  ;  20,  posterior  tibial  nerve  ;  21,  posterior 
plantar  nerve  ;  22,  internal  radial  nerve  ;  23,  anterior  plantar  nerve ;  24,  digital 
nerves. 

(2)  The  arachnoid  consists  of  two  layers  forming  a  closed 
sack,  the  outer  layer  fitted  closely  to  the  dura  mater,  and 
the  inner  layer  fitted  closely  to  the  pia  mater.  (3)  The  pia 
mater  is  thin,  delicate,  and  fits  closely  to  the  bruin  sub- 
stance —  over  the  convolutions  and  into  the  depressions.. 

Gray  matter,  folded  into  convolutions,  covers  the  surface. 
The  interior  is  composed  of  white  matter. 

Function.  —  The  physiological  function  of  the  brain  is  to 


28  VETERINARY   STUDIES 

receive  messages,  consider  information,  and  send  out  ap- 
propriate impulses  or  orders  to  the  proper  organs. 

Divisions.  —  The  brain  is  divided  for  study  into:  («)  cere- 
brum;   (b)  cerebellum;    (c)  medulla;    (d)  isthmus. 

The  cerebrum  is  largest,  and  located  in  the  anterior  part 
of  the  brain  cavity,  and  is  divided  into  two  lobes  or  hemi- 
spheres by  the  median  fissure. 

The  cerebellum,  smaller  than  the  cerebrum,  is  located  in 
the  posterior  and  inferior  part  of  the  brain  cavity,  and  con- 
sists of  three  small  lobes.  Section  shows  the  arbor-vita3 
(tree  of  life)  arrangement  of  nerve  tissue.  It  is  the  func- 
tion of  the  cerebellum  to  control  the  voluntary  muscles  that 
they  may  work  in  harmony. 

The  7nedulla  is  a  continuation  of  the  spinal  cord  and  ex- 
tends from  the  occipital  opening  in  the  brain  cavity  to  the 
pons  or  bridge,  and  is  located  posterior  and  inferior  to  the 
cerebellum. 

Within  the  medulla  are  located  a  number  of  important 
centers,  among  them,  the  ones  controlling  respiration;  the 
caliber  of  blood  vessels,  distribution  of  the  blood  according 
to  the  needs  of  the  body;  the  center  controlling  the  processes 
of  swallowing;  the  vomiting  center;  and  the  center  control- 
ling the  secretion  of  saliva. 

The  isthmus  is  that  part  of  the  inferior  portion  of  the 
brain  which  connects  the  pons  with  the  cerebrum. 

Cranial  nerves.  —  There  are  twelve  pairs,  of  which  the 
1st  is  olfactory  (nerve  of  smell) ;  2d,  optic  (sight) ;  3d,  oc- 
culomotor,  to  muscles  of  the  eyeball;  5th,  trifacial,  to  e3"e, 
skin  of  the  face,  teeth,  etc.;  7th,  facial,  to  muscles  of  face; 
Sih.,  auditory,  to  internal  ear  —  hearing;  ^ih,  glossopharyn- 
geal to  tongue  and  pharynx,  sense  of  taste  and  general  sen- 
sation; 10th,  pneumogastric,  sometimes  called  the  wandering 
pair,  distributed  to  heart,  lungs,  stomach,  liver,  intestines 
and  other  alxlominal  organs. 

Spinal  cord  is  that  portion  of  the  cerebrospinal  system 
which  extends  within  the  spinal  canal  from  the  occipital 
opening  to  the  sacrum.     It  weighs  about  10.5  ounces  and  con- 


NERVOUS  SYSTEM 


29 


sists  of  white  matter  on  the  outside  and  gray  matter  in  the 
interior,  and  is  covered  by  the  same  three  membranes  as 
the  brain.  The  spinal  cord  is  marked  throughout  its  entire 
length  by  two  fissures,  one  extending  along  the  superior 
surface,  and  another  along  the  inferior  surface. 

It  is  the  function  of  the  spinal  cord  to  act  as  a  means  of 
communication  between  the  brain  and  spinal  nerves,  and 
as  a  reflex  nerve  center. 

Spinal  nerves.  —  There  are  about  42  pairs.  Each  nerve 
has  origin  in  two  roots.  One  root  (superior)  comes  from  the 
upper  portion  of  the  cord  and  is  composed  of  sensory  fibers. 
The  other  root  (inferior)  comes  from  the  lower  portion  of  the 


Spinal  Cord  and  Brain  in  Diagram.     {M.  H.  R.) 


1.  Cross  Section  of  the  Spinal  Cord.  A,  Superior  median  fissure  ;  B,  inferior 
median  fissure  ;  C,  C,  superior  gray  horns  ;  D,  D,  inferior  gray  horns  ;  E,  central 
canal ;  F,  white  substance. 

2.  Vertical  Mid-Section  of  Brain.  A,  Medulla  ;  B,  cerebellum ;  C,  pons  or 
bridge  ;  D,  isthmus  ;  E,  cerebrum. 


cord  and  is  composed  of  motor  fibers.  The  nerve  is  there- 
fore mixed. 

These  nerves  emerge  from  the  spinal  canal  in  pairs,  one 
on  each  side  and  at  each  articulation  of  the  vertebrae.  They 
are  named  cervical,  dorsal,  etc.,  according  to  location  in  the 
spinal  column. 

The  spinal  nerves  supply,  by  their  superior  branches,  the 
skin  and  muscles  of  the  neck  and  spinal  column.  By  their 
inferior  branches  they  supply  the  lower  portion  of  the  body 
and  hmbs  and  furnish  other  branches  which  in  part  make 
:up  the  two  great  sympathetic  nerve  trunks. 


30 


VETERINARY  STUDIES 


THE    SYMPATHETIC    SYSTEM 

This  consists  of  two  cords,  one  on  each  side  of  the  spinal 
column,  and  extending  from  the  head  to  root  of  tail,  together 
with  all  the  nerves  which  branch  from  these  two  trunks. 
These  cords  are  not  smooth,  but  have  enlargements  called 
gangha  at  intervals  along  their  course.  Each  cord  resem- 
bles somewhat  a  small,  rather  flat,  and  knotted  rope. 

Composition.  —  These  two  trunks  are  composed  of  nerves 
from  the  medulla  and  from  the  inferior  branches  of  all  the 
spinal  nerves  except  the  coccygeal.  By  this  arrangement  of 
composition  and  the  frequent  connections  of  sympathetic 
with  cerebrospinal  nerves,  there  is  constituted  a  very  per- 


FiG.  18.  —  Relation  of  the    Sympathetic  and    Cerebrospinal    Systems. 
Partly  Diagrammatic. 

1,  Braiu  ;  2,  spinal  cord  ;  3,  sympathetics. 


feet   union   of  these   two   systems  into   one   great   nervous 
machine. 

Ganglia.  —  The  knots  along  the  two  main  trunks  are 
ganglia  of  nerve  cells  and  fibers.  One  of  these,  the  solar 
plexus,  is  Ideally  composed  of  two  large  ganglia,  united  by  a 
large  cord  and  many  filaments.  It  supplies  the  stomach, 
intestines,  liver,  pancreas,  spleen,  and  kidneys.  An  injury 
to  the  solar  plexus  is  always  serious. 


NERVOUS  SYSTEM  31 

Sympathetic  nerves.  —  These  control  in  part  involuntary 
muscle  fibers  and  through  these  the  organs  of  circulation, 
respiration,  and  digestion,  and  in  part  the  work  of  the 
various  glands  includhig  the  liver,  spleen,  pancreas,  and 
kidneys.  Sympathetic  nerves  are  gray;  cerebrospinal 
nerves  are  white. 

Practical  application.  —  The  student  should  now  make 
practical  observations,  recording  fully.  He  may,  for  ex- 
ample, record  past  experience  or  present  observations  con- 
cerning horses  and  cattle,  taking  those  of  sluggish, 
well-balanced,  and  highly  nervous  organizations.  Compare 
these  different  types  as  to  working  efficiency,  feeding,  and 
keeping  quality.  Note  the  effect  of  excitement  on  high- 
type  dairy  cows  as  to  production  —  quantity  and  quality  of 
milk  considered. 

In  making  these  studies,  he  should  bear  in  mind  that  the 
quantity  and  quality  of  digestive  fluids,  food  absorption, 
distribution  and  utilization  of  food  material,  the  amount  of 
blood  flowing  through  a  cow's  udder,  and  the  degree  of 
gland  cell  activity  in  the  udder  are  all  under  the  direct  in- 
fluence of  the  nervous  system. 


LECTURE  VIII 
CIRCULATION 

Blood  is  a  complex  fluid  consisting  of  serum,  fibrin  fac- 
tors, and  two  kinds  of  corpuscles,  —  the  red  and  the  white. 
Its  temperature  differs  in  the  various  domestic  animals  from 
101°  to  104°  F.,  —  the  horse  100°  to  101.5°  F.  and  the 
cow  about  one  degree  higher;  sheep  vary  from  100°  to  104°. 
Its  specific  gravity  is  about  1050,  and  it  constitutes  about 
one  tenth  the  body  weight. 

Circulatory  apparatus  —  heart,  arteries,  veins,  capillaries,. 
lymphatic  vessels,  and  lymph  glands. 

The  heart  is  located  within  the  pericardium,  which  sup- 
ports the  heart  in  place  beneath  the  3d,  4th,  and  5th  dorsal 
vertebra)  by  attaching  to  the  large  blood  vessels  at  its  base; 
to  the  diaphragm  behind,  and  to  the  sternum  below.  It 
measures  about  10.5  inches  in  length  by  7.5  wide  at  the 
base,  is  cone-shaped,  and  weighs  6.75  pounds.  The  heart 
contains  four  cavities,  easily  seen  by  cutting  the  heart  open. 
Two  located  at  the  base  are  called  auricles;  and  two  at  the 
apex,  ventricles. 

The  auricles  are  much  alike,  as  are  also  the  ventricles, 
except  that  the  left  ventricle  is  larger  and  has  a  wall  which 
is  more  than  twice  as  thick  as  the  right.  The  heart  is 
covered  by  the  pericardium  and  lined  with  the  endocardium. 
Its  muscle  fibers  are  involuntary  so  far  as  control  is  con- 
cerned, but  are  striped. 

Course  of  the  blood.  —  Beginning  with  the  blood  entering 
the  right  auricle  through  the  anterior  and  posterior  venae 
cavse  and  coronary  veins,  it  then  passes  through  the  right 
auricle,  thence  into  the  right  ventricle,  thence  to  the  lungs 

32 


CIRCULATION  33 

through  the  puhnonary  artery,  back  to  the  left  auricle, 
through  four  pulmonary  veins,  past  the  valves  on  the  left 
side,  to  the  left  ventricle,  and  is  then  sent  by  this  ventricle 
through  the  systemic  circuit.  The  systemic  blood  leaves 
the  left  ventricle  through  a  large  artery  called  the  aorta. 

The  opening  between  the  right  auricle  and  the  right 
ventricle  is  guarded  by  the  right  auriculo-ventricular  valve; 
the  opening  between  the  right  ventricle  and  the  pulmonary 
artery  is  guarded  by  the  right  semilunar  valve. 

The  opening  between  the  left  ventricle  and  the  left  auricle 
is  guarded  by  the  left  auriculo-ventricular  valve,  and  the 
opening  to  the  aorta  from  the  left  ventricle  is  guarded  by 
the  left  semilunar  valve. 

The  pulmonary  circulation  is  the  flow  of  blood  which 
occurs  between  the  heart  and  lungs. 

The  systemic  circulation  is  that  wdiich  occurs  between  the 
heart  and  all  the  rest  of  the  body,  except  the  lungs. 

Arteries,  veins,  and  capillaries.  —  Arteries  have  thicker  and 
more  elastic  walls ;  remain  open  after  death,  although  empty ; 
the  stream  flows  in  jets;  the  blood  is  lighter  in  color  than 
that  in  the  veins  and  flows  from  the  heart.  Arteries  have 
no  valves.  In  all  these  points  the  arteries  differ  from  the 
veins.  Both  have  three  coats:  outer,  fibrous;  middle, 
muscular;    and  inner,  serous. 

Cai^illaries  are  the  small  vessels  and  spaces  which  connect 
minute  arteries  with  minute  veins. 

BLOOD  SUPPLY  OF  THE  BODY 

Arteries.  —  The  aorta  is  the  trunk  artery  wdiich  receives 
blood  from  the  left  ventricle  for  the  systematic  circuit.  It 
is  about  two  inches  long  and  branches  into  two  large  trunks; 
viz.  the  anterior  aorta  and  the  posterior  aorta.  The  an- 
terior supplies  the  head,  neck,  and  front  limbs ;  and  the  pos- 
terior supplies  in  a  general  way  the  rest  of  the  body. 

Anterior  aorta  is  smaller  and  shorter  (one  inch  long) ; 
course  is  upward  and  forward.     It  divides  into  the  right 


34 


VETERINARY   STUDIES 


and  left  axillary  arteries.  These  lie  near  the  trachea,  one 
on  each  side,  for  a  short  distance,  and  then  bend  around  the 
anterior  borders  of  the  first  ribs  and  terminate  at  the  inner 
part  of  each  shoulder  in  the  humeral  arteries,  which  are  the 
continuing  branches  of  the  axilhuy.  Each  humeral  fur- 
nishes blood  for  the  corresponding  front  limb. 


Fig.  19.  —  Circulation.     Arteries  Gray,  Veins  White. 

1,  Heart,  right  ventricle  ;  2,  left  ventricle  ;  3,  left  auricle  ;  4,  pulmonary  artery  ; 
5,  pulmonary  veins;  6,  anterior  aorta  ;  7,  carotid  artery;  9,  left  axUlary  artery; 
1.':!,  humeral  artery ;  14,  radial  artery  ;  15,  metacarpal  artery  ;  16,  digital 
artery  ;  17,  posterior  aorta  ;  18,  coeliac  trunk  ;  19,  mesenteric  trunk  ;  20,  renal 
(kidney)  artery  ;  22,  posterior  vena  cava  (vein)  ;  23,  portal  vein  ;  24,  external  iliac 
artery  ;  internal  iliac  artery;  27,  femoral  artery  ;  28,  posterior  tibial  artery; 
2y,  metatarsal  artery;  30,  venous  supply  to  the  foot;  33,  jugular  vein. 


The  common  carotid  arteries,  right  and  left,  supply  various 
structures  in  the  neck  and  head.  These  have  their  origin 
in  a  single  vessel,  the  cephalic  artery,  which  branches  from 
the  right  axillary  near  the  division  of  the  anterior  aorta 
into  right  and  left  axillary  arteries. 

A  corpuscle,  on  its  way  from  the  heart  to  the  brain,  would 


CIRCULATION.  35 

pass  through  the  aorta,  anterior  aorta,  right  axillary,  ce- 
phalic, and  common  carotid,  and  then  through  a  branch  of 
the  carotid  to  the  brain. 

Posterior  aorta  curves  upward  and  backward,  through  the 
diaphragm,  then  under  the  bodies  of  the  dorsal  and  lumbar 
vertebrae  to  the  lumbo-sacral  articulation.  This  large  artery 
supplies  blood  to  the  thoracic  and  abdominal  organs,  and 
then  terminates  in  four  branches  named  iliacs,  —  two  ex- 
ternal and  two  internal. 

The  two  external  ilincs  correspond  somewhat  to  the  two 
axillaries  in  front  and  the  two  femoral  arteries  to  the  two 
humeral,  for  it  is  the  femoral  arteries  which  continue  the 
external  iliacs  and  distribute  blood  to  the  posterior  limbs 
and  feet. 

The  two  internal  iliacs  are  smaller  and  distribute  blood 
to  the  pelvic  organs. 

Veins.  —  These  usually  accompany  arteries.  One  large 
vein  commonly  accompanies  each  large  artery  and  two  small 
veins  accompany  each  of  the  smaller  arteries;  but  this  is 
not  a  fixed  law. 

The  anterior  vena  cava  corresponds  to  the  anterior  aorta 
and  the  jwsterior  vena  cava  to  the  posterior  aorta.  Each 
returns  the  blood  to  the  heart  which  its  corresponding  aorta 
has  distributed. 

All  the  veins  except  those  of  the  bones,  small  veins  in  the 
feet,  and  the  veins  of  the  brain  and  spinal  cord,  have  valves. 

Valves  are  most  common  and  numerous  in  the  veins  of 
the  extremities  and  in  those  veins  which  pass  through  and 
among  voluntary  muscles. 

Pulmonary  veins,  four  in  number,  have  their  origin  within 
the  lungs.  They  return  blood  from  lungs  to  heart  in  the 
pulmonary  circuit  and  carry  pure  l:)lood. 

The  anterior  vena  cava  has  its  origin  between  the  two  first 
ribs  at  the  juncture  of  the  two  jugular  and  two  axillary 
veins.  Jugular  vein  corresponds  to  carotid  artery,  and 
axillary  vein  to  axillary  artery. 

The  posterior  vena  cava  has  its  origin  near  the  last  lumbar 


36 


VETERINARY  STUDIES 


vertebra  by  the  union  of  the  common  iUac  veins.  It  passes 
beneath  and  at  one  side  of  the  bodies  of  the  vertebra^, 
through  Hver  and  diaphragm,  to  the  right  auricle  of  the 
heart. 

LYMPHATIC    SYSTEM 

Parts.  —  The  lymphatic  system  consists  of  vessels  and 
glands.  The  current  in  the  vessels  is  like  that  in  the  veins 
in  that  it  flows  toward  the  heart  and  is  very  sluggish. 


Fig.  20.  —  Circulation.     Diagrammatic. 


1.  Heart  and  Blood  Vessels.    A,  Heart ;   B,  pericardium  ;   C,  anterior  vena  cava  ; 
D,  posterior  vena  cava  ;  E,  anterior  aorta  ;  F,  posterior  aorta. 

2.  The  Circulation  in  Diagram.    A,  A,  Auricle-ventricle  valves  ;  B,  B,  semilunar 
valves. 

Lymphatic  vessels.  —  These  have  thin  transparent  walls 
and  are  found  in  most  of  the  body  tissues.  They  have  valves 
like  the  veins  and  carry  lymph,  or,  in  the  lacteals,  chyle. 
The  lacteals  are  lymphatic  vessels  which  drain  the  digestive 
canal,  chiefly  the  small  intestines. 


CIRCULATION  37 

There  are  two  main  vessels:  the  thoracic  and  right 
lymphatic. 

The  tlioracic  is  situated  along  the  vertebral  column  within 
the  abdomen  and  thorax,  on  the  right  side,  near  the  heads  of 
the  ribs.  It  has  its  origin  in  one  dilatation  or  receptacle  and 
terminates  in  another  before  emptying  into  the  anterior 
vena  cava.  Its  opening  in  the  vein  is  protected  by  a  valve 
in  order  that  blood  may  not  get  into  the  duct.  This  duct 
drains  all  the  body  except  the  right  side  of  the  face,  right 
side  of  head  and  neck,  right  shoulder,  and  right  front  limb. 

The  right  lymphatic  duct  is  a  very  short  vessel  into  which 
empty  all  the  vessels  which  drain  these  latter  regions. 

Lymph  glands.  —  The  lymph  glands  serve  in  part  to  re- 
move from  the  lymph  disease  germs  and  other  harmful 
bodies.     Their  function  is  something  like  that  of  a  filter. 

Function.  —  The  lymph  fluid  distributes  nourishment  by 
osmosis  directly  to  the  body  tissues,  and  removes  waste 
materials  by  the  same  process.  The  nutritious  materials 
are  as  a  rule  taken  into  the  lymph  from  the  l^lood,  and 
waste  materials  which  the  lymph  receives  from  the  tissues 
are  poured  into  the  blood  through  the  thoracic  duct  and 
the  right  lymphatic  duct. 


LECTURE  IX 

RESPIRATION 

Definition.  —  Respiration  is  the  process  by  which  the  vari- 
ous tissues  gain  oxygen  and  give  off  impurities.  Apparently, 
the  plain  simple  purpose  of  respiration  is  twofold:  (1)  to 
get  oxygen  into  the  blood  and  various  body  tissues,  and 
(2)  to  get  carbonic  gas  (CO.2)  and  various  other  organic  impuri- 
ties out  of  the  blood  and  body  tissues.  It  is  a  common 
mistake  to  suppose  that  respiration  is  confined  to  the  lungs. 
A  very  important  portion  of  the  true  respiration  occurs  be- 
tween the  blood  and  individual  tissue  cells  apart  from  the 
lungs. 

Respiration  includes  oxidation  and  also  elimination  of 
waste  products.  This  involves  a  double  series  of  exchanges, 
one  series  occurring  in  the  lungs  and  a  reversed  series  occur- 
ring mainly  in  the  tissue  cells. 

Continuous  oxidation  processes  in  the  body  result  in 
continuous  production  of  carbonic  acid  gas,  urea,  water, 
and  other  waste  products. 

Stages.  —  There  are  four  stages  in  the  complete  act  of 
respiration:  (a)  air  comes  into  the  lungs;  (6)  blood  takes 
out  part  of  the  oxygen ;  (c)  tissues  take  part  of  the  oxygen 
away  from  the  blood  and  give  back  to  the  blood  carbonic 
gas  and  other  materials  in  exchange;  and  (d)  the  blood 
trades  off  its  carbonic  gas  and  other  materials  to  the  air 
for  oxygen. 

Oxygen  is  carried  to  the  tissues  by  the  blood,  and  waste 
products  are  washed  away  from  the  tissues  by  the  same 
'fluid. 

The  blood  cannot  unite  with  sufficient  oxygen  or  elimi- 

38 


RESPIRATION 


39 


nate  its  waste  materials  unless  it  is  brought  in  contact  with 
air.  It  is  in  the  lungs  that  the  red  blood  cells  and  serum 
load  up  with  oxygen,  and  it  is  here  that  carbonic  gas  (CO.) 
and  other  volatile  impurities  are  eliminated  from  the  blood. 
The  water,  CO2,  and  other  volatile  compounds  in  the  blood 
capillaries,  and  oxygen  in  the  inspired  air,  are  separated  in 
the  lungs  by  a  thin  animal  membrane.  Nature  is  con- 
stantly endeavoring  there  to  equalize  pressures  and  satisfy 


l^ATEf? 


OXYGEN 


HEAT 


^BON-DI-OX/D£: 


LUNGS 


BLOOD 


GAS 


BODY  TISSUES 


Fig.  21.  —  Respiration  in  Diagram.     {M.  H.  R.) 


chemical  affinities  between  free  gases  on  one  side  of  this 
membrane  and  gases  held  by  a  liquid  on  the  other  side  of 
this  same  membrane. 

Aside  from  chemical  combination,  each  gas  moves  either 
away  according  to  the  partial  pressure  of  the  gas  on  one  side 
and  the  tension  of  the  same  gas  in  the  liquid  on  the  other 
side  of  this  membrane.  The  tension  of  the  oxygen  in  venous 
blood  is  estimated  at  22.04  mm.  mercury,  and  pressure  in 
lung  air  at  about  100  mm.  The  tension  of  CO2  in  the 
venous  blood  is  41.04  mm.  mercury,  and  in  the  lung  air  at 
23  mm.  These  variations  in  pressures  and  tensions  do  not 
appear  to  account  for  all  exchange.  The  living  tissue  cells 
probably  interfere  with  the  perfect  working  of  these  forces. 

The  factors  that  vary  the  proportion  of  oxygen  con- 
sumed and  CO2  excreted  are :  body  weight,  amount  of  body 
surface,  also  rate  and  depth  of  respiration.     We  have  the 


40  VETERINARY   STUDIES 

lowest  rate  of  respiratory  change  in  the  body,  during  fasting 
and  highest  rate  on  a  nitrogenous  diet. 

The  amount  of  oxygen  absorbed  and  CO2  developed  in- 
crease rapidly  with  increase  of  body  temperature  and  physio- 
logical activity.  Muscular  activity  greatly  increases  oxygen 
consumption.  Physiologists  tell  us  that  even  shivering 
nuiltiplies  the  respiratory  changes  by  two,  and  that  external 
cold  has  a  similar  effect. 

Parts.  —  Respiratory  system  consists  of  nasal  chambers, 
pharynx,  larynx,  trachea,  bronchi,  and  lungs.  These  organs 
are  all  lined  with  mucous  membrane.  Function  is  to  bring 
blood  and  air  so  near  each  other  that  the  exchange  may  be 
rapid  and  the  blood  take  away  oxygen  and  leave  waste 
matters. 

Nostrils.  —  Two  in  number.  These  are  openings  at  the 
front  of  the  nasal  cavities.  The  skin  covering  the  nostrils 
is  comparatively  thin,  quite  sensitive,  and  supported  by 
cartilages.  The  mucous  membrane  lining  the  nasal  cham- 
bers is  divided  for  study  into  two  portions :  the  upper,  in 
ivhich  are  distributed  the  terminations  of  the  olfactory 
nerves,  and  the  lower,  the  Schneiderian. 

The  inferior  turbinated  bones  are  located  on  the  outer 
wall  of  each  nasal  cavity,  two  in  number,  scroll  shaped. 

Nasal  cavities.  —  Two  in  number,  one  on  each  side  of  a 
median  partition.  This  partition  is  composed  of  the  vomer, 
a  portion  of  the  ethmoid,  and  the  median  cartilage.  Each 
cavity  connects  in  front  with  the  outside  air  through  the 
nostril  and  behind  with  the  pharynx  through  an  opening 
which  may  be  called  the  posterior  nostril  or,  technically,  the 
posterior  nares.  Each  chamber  also  connects  laterally  with 
the  sinuses  of  the  head  (shown  in  class).  The  floor,  roof, 
and  sides  are  formed  by  the  various  face  bones,  together 
with  portions  of  the  frontal,  ethmoid,  and  sphenoid,  and  the 
median  cartilage  already  mentioned. 

Pharynx.  —  This  is  a  muscular  sac  situated  beneath  the 
cranium,  and  back  of  the  soft  palate,  which  constitutes  a 
partition  between  the  pharynx  and  mouth  cavities.     This 


RESPIRATION  41 

organ  belongs  to  both  the  respiratory  and  digestive  systems. 
Its  walls  arc  composed  of  two  coats:  the  inner  mucous  and 
outer  muscular.  It  connects  by  openings  with  the  nasal 
chambers  above,  witli  the  mouth  in  front,  and  with  the 
esophagus  behind,  with  the  lungs  below,  and  on  each  side 
with  the  Eustachian  tube  to  the  middle  ear. 

Larynx.  —  A  cartilaginous  box  located  at  the  upper  end 
of  the  trachea  and  composed  of  five  pieces — one  epiglottis, 
one  thyroid,  two  arytenoids,  one  cricoid.  Twelve  muscles 
attach  to  these  cartilages  for  the  purpose  of  controlling 
them. 

The  epiglottis  (a  sort  of  lid)  is  a  tongue-shaped  piece  of 
flexible  cartilage  which  covers  the  entrance  to  the  larynx. 
It  is  held  down  against  the  arytenoid  cartilages  when  food 
is  swallowed,  but  immediately  afterward  moves  upward  and 
thus  opens  the  entrance  to  the  larynx.  It  remains  in  this 
position  during  respiration. 

The  thyroid  cartilage  (shield-like)  is  located  at  the  upper 
and  front  portion  of  the  larynx,  extending  well  around  on 
the  sides. 

The  arytenoids  are  two  in  number,  one  on  each  side. 
The  two  taken  together  are  shaped  somewhat  like  the  front 
part  of  a  pitcher,  situated  at  the  sides  of  the  upper  part  of 
the  larynx,  coming  together  at  the  median  line.  These 
cartilages  give  attachments  to  the  vocal  cords. 

The  cricoid  is  shaped  like  a  ring  with  a  process  on  the 
upper  and  front  part,  which  causes  this  cartilage  to  resemble 
a  seal  ring.  It  is  located  at  the  lower  portion  of  the  larynx 
and  connected  with  the  trachea. 

The  vocal  cords  are  a  pair  of  narrow  fil^rous  bands  so  situ- 
ated as  to  include  a  narrow  triangular  space  between  them. 
They  are  attached  in  front  to  the  thyroid  and  behind  to 
the  arytenoids. 

Trachea,  or  ivindpipe.  —  This  is  located  beneath  and  in 
front  of  the  esophagus.  It  is  a  long  tube  composed  of  about 
50  cartilage  rings  beginning  at  the  cricoid  cartilage  above 
and  terminates  at  the  bronchi  below.     It  therefore  connects 


42  VETERINARY   STUDIES 

the  lariiyx  and  bronchi.     It  is  Uned  by  a  mucous  membrane 
which  is  covered  by  ciHated  cells. 

Bronchi.  —  Are  two  in  number,  are  branches  of  the 
trachea,  and  very  similar  to  it  in  structure  and  function. 
One  bronchus  attaches  to  the  root  of  each  lung. 

Lungs.  —  There  are  two,  right  and  left.  These  are  the 
essential  organs  of  respiration,  and  located  in  thoracic 
cavity.  Each  lung  is  cone-shaped  and  inclosed  in  a  sepa- 
rate pleural  sack  (explained),  and  the  other  layer  of  the 
pleura  lines  the  interior  of  the  thorax.  In  the  lungs  of  a 
horse  the  lobes  are  not  distinctly  marked.  Some  authors 
make  no  definite  divisions;  others  describe  the  right  lung 
as  having  three  lobes,  and  the  left  two.  The  lobes  are  then 
described  as  anterior,  middle,  and  posterior,  the  left  lung 
in  the  horse  having  no  middle  lobe. 

In  the  cow's  lungs  the  lobes  are  distinctly  marked.  The 
left  lung  has  three  distinct  lobes.  The  right  lung  has  four 
lobes  by  reason  of  the  anterior  lobe  being  divided  into  two 
parts:  first  and  second. 

The  bronchi  are  subdivided  until  they  are  very  small  and  are 
then  called  bronchioles.  Each  bronchiole  terminates  in  a  very 
small  cavity  made  by  a  lot  of  air  cells  opening  together.  These 
cells  have  very  thin  walls,  and  are  separated  by  loose  connec- 
tive tissue  in  which  minute  blood  vessels  are  located.  Blood 
is  then  separated  from  the  air  by  only  a  very  thin  membrane. 

Practical  application.  —  The  student  may  make  observa- 
tions, recording  fully,  concerning  the  probable  relations  be- 
tween external  appearance  of  the  chest  and  actual  chest 
capacity.  This  question  has  frequently  arisen  in  connection 
with  discussions  on  bovine  tuberculosis.  Is  the  external 
appearance  probably  a  reliable  guide  as  to  actual  chest 
capacity?     Why? 

Study  a  skeleton  or  chart  and  note  the  curvature  of  tlie 
ribs.  Bear  in  mind  that  the  ribs  move  forward  and  out- 
ward during  inspiration.  What  relation,  if  any,  between 
the  degree  of  rib  curvature  and  possible  chest  expansion?' 
What  type  of  nostril,  nasal  chamber,  and  larynx  do  you 
usually  find  with  great  lung  capacity? 


LECTURE  X 
DIGESTIVE   APPARATUS 

Definition.  —  The  digestive  apparatus  consists  of  various 
organs  which  carry  on  the  processes  of  food  reception,  di- 
gestion, and  absorption.  The  digestive  apparatus  also  expels 
various  undigested  and  waste  materials.  The  organs  of 
digestion  are  the  mouth,  pharynx,  esophagus,  stomach, 
and  intestines,  together  with  certain  other  organs;  viz. 
the  salivary  glands  at  the  mouth,  and  the  liver  and  pan- 
creas in  the  abdominal  cavity. 

Mouth.  —  At  the  mouth  we  find  the  lips,  teeth,  tongue, 
and  palate. 

The  horse  has  a  freely  movable  and  sensitive  upper  lip, 
which  is  used  in  selecting  food.  The  cow  has  hard  carti- 
laginous lips  and  selects  her  food  mainly  by  the  tongue. 

The  tongue  is  used  by  the  cow  to  select  and  gather  her 
food,  and  by  all  animals  to  control  the  food  while  in  the 
mouth  and  assist  in  swallowing.  This  organ  is  composed 
largely  of  muscular  tissue  with  some  connective  tissue,  and 
is  covered  by  the  common  mucous  membrane.  Its  surface 
is  studded  with  several  kinds  of  papillae,  similar  to  those  on 
the  human  tongue.  These  aid  in  controlling  the  food  while 
in  the  mouth  and  have  to  do  with  the  sense  of  taste.  They 
are  especially  prominent  and  strong  on  the  cow's  tongue. 

The  hard  palate  forms  the  roof  of  the  mouth,  and  consists 
of  portions  of  the  superior  maxillary  and  ])alate  bones 
covered  by  tough  connective  tissue,  and  overlaid  with  mu- 
cous membrane.  This  connective  tissue  and  its  covering 
of  mucous  membrane  is  thrown  up  into  a  series  of  trans- 
verse ridges,  easily  seen  on  the  roof  of  a  horse's  mouth, 
sometimes  called  "  bars." 

43 


44 


VETERINARY  STUDIES 


The  soft  palate  is  a  membranous  structure  containing 
some  muscular  tissue.  Its  function  is  to  separate  the  pos- 
terior opening  of  the  nose  chamber  and  pharynx  from  the 
mouth. 

The  salivary  glands  on  each  side  are  :  one  parotid,  one 
submaxillary,  one  sublingual,  and  two  molar.  They  secrete 
saliva  which  helps  to  change  insoluble  and  useless  starch 
into  a  soluble  and  useful  sugar.  It  also  assists  in  swallow- 
ing by  so  moistening  the  food  that  it  passes  easily  along. 


Fig.  22.  —  Stomach  of  the  Horse. 

1.  External  View.    A,  Esophagus  ;  B,  pyloric  portion  ;   C,  duodenum;   E,  E,  left 
sac  ;  F,  right  sac. 

2.  Internal  View.     B,  Right  sac  ;   C,  duodenum  ;  E,  esophagus. 


This  is  especially  important  for  animals  like  the  horse,  cow, 
and  sheep,  that  live  upon  a  dry  and  more  or  less  bulky  food. 
The  horse  needs  on  an  average  about  85  pounds  and  the 
cow  120  pounds  every  24  hours. 

The  parotid  is  located  behind  the  lower  jaw  and  below 
the  base  of  the  car.  It  is  connected  with  the  mouth  by 
Steno's  duct,  through  which  its  saliva  flows  to  the  mouth. 

The  submaxillarj/  lies  in  the  space  between  the  flat  por- 
tions of  the  inferior  maxilla,  external  to  the  larynx.  Its 
saliva  reaches  the  mouth  through  Wharton's  duct,  which 
opens  at  the  side  of  that  portion  of  the  tongue  where  it 
attaches  underneath. 

The    sublingual   lies  beneath  the  tongue,  and  its  saliva 


DIGESTIVE   APPARATUS  45 

escapes  into  the  mouth  through  15  or  20  small  ducts,  the 
ducts  of  Rivini, 

Molar  glands  are  two  in  number  on  each  side  and  are 
located  near,  and  opposite  to,  the  molar  teeth. 

The  pharynx  belongs  to  both  the  digestive  and  respiratory 
systems  and  was  described  in  the  lecture  on  respiration. 

The  esophagus  is  a  slender  tube  4  to  5  feet  long,  1  inch  in 
diameter,  connects  pharynx  and  stomach,  quite  elastic.  It 
is  composed  of  two  coats.  The  inner  is  mucous  membrane; 
the  outer  is  muscular  and  composed  of  two  sets  of  fibers, 
one  set  encircling  the  esophagus  and  the  other  placed 
lengthwise. 

The  stomach  is  located  in  the  anterior  portion  of  the  ab- 
dominal cavity.  The  horse's  stomach,  when  cut  open,  shows 
two  distinct  portions.  The  mucous  membrane  which  lines 
the  interior  on  the  left  side  is  hght  colored,  firm,  and  tough, 
like  the  mucous  membrane  of  the  esophagus,  of  which  it  is  a 
continuation.  On  the  right  side  of  the  stomach  the  mu- 
cous membrane  is  soft  and  red.  The  horse's  stomach  holds 
about  3^  gallons,  and  the  cow's  stomach  about  45  gallons. 
The  function  of  the  stomach  is  to  receive  food  and  furnish 
gastric  juice  to  partly  digest  it.  Stomach  of  the  cow  is 
compound,  with  four  cavities.  The  first  cavity,  the  paunch, 
is  much  the  largest  and  acts  as  a  sort  of  storage  vat.  Gas- 
tric juice  is  furnished  by  glands  in  right  side  of  horse's 
stomach,  and  by  cow's  fourth  stomach.  Effect  of  gastric 
juice  is  to  make  proteid  matters  soluble,  which  it  does  by 
the  action  of  its  pepsin  ferment,  which  is  very  active.  The 
quantity  of  gastric  juice  used  by  horse  and  cow  varies  from 
100  lbs.  to  170  lbs.  in  24  hours. 

The  small  intestine.  —  This  begins  at  the  stomach,  the 
common  opening  being  guarded  by  the  pyloris,  a  strong 
sphincter  muscle  Hke  a  purse  string.  The  small  intestine  is 
divided  into  three  parts:  duodenum,  jejunum,  and  ileum. 
The  small  intestine  is  about  72  feet  long  in  the  horse  and 
140  feet  in  the  cow,  and  extends  from  the  stomach  to  the 
caecum,  at  which  point  the  large  intestine  begins. 


46  VETERINARY  STUDIES 

The  stomach,  small  and  large  intestine  have  the  same 
three  coats:  inner  mucous,  middle  muscular,  and  outer 
serous. 

The  mucous  coat  in  the  small  intestines  is  thickly  studded 
with  villi.  Various  intestinal  glands  furnish  fluids  which 
assist  in  digestion. 

The  muscular  coat  is  composed  of  two  sets  of  fibers,  those 
of  one  set  encircling  the  bowel,  and  those  of  the  other  set 
are  lengthwise  for  the  purpose  of  producing  peristaltic  action 
of  the  intestines. 


Fig.  23. —  Stomach  of  the  Cow. 

A,  A,  and  B,  B,  Different  portions  of  the  paunch  or  rumen  ;  C,  termination  of 
the  esophagus ;  D,  second  stomach  (reticulum) ;  E,  third  stomach  (omasum)  ; 
F,  F,  fourth  stomach  (abomasum)  ;  G,  small  intestine,  just  beyond  the  pylons ; 
H,  esophagus. 

The  outer  coat  is  the  jjeritoneum,  a  serous  membrane 
which  lines  the  al^dominal  cavity  and  also  covers  the  various 
abdominal  organs. 

The  liver  is  the  largest  gland  in  the  body,  weighing  about 
11  lbs.,  and  is  situated  in  the  abdominal  cavity  on  the  right 
side  and  well  forward  against  the  diaphragm.  It  manu- 
factures about  12  lbs.  of  bile  in  24  hours.  The  liver  shows 
four  fairly  distinct  lobes,  named  —  the  left,  right,  middle, 
and  Spigelian.      The  liver  is  inclosed  in  a  strong  capsule 


DIGESTIVE  APPARATUS  47 

called  Glisson's  capsule.  The  cow  has  a  gall  bladder,  but 
the  horse  has  none  and  the  bile  flows  more  or  less  constantly 
into  the  intestine.  The  bile  aids  somewhat  in  digestion  of 
fats.  It  has  also  a  slight  cathartic  effect :  it  aids  absorp- 
tion and  tends  to  prevent  putrefaction.  The  liver  cells  con- 
vert sugar  from  the  blood  into  animal  starch  (glycogen), 
and  store  it  up  as  such,  and  finally  they  reconvert  this  glyco- 
gen into  soluble  sugar  and  give  it  out  to  the  blood  in  pro- 
portion as  the  blood  loses  its  sugar. 

The  pancreas,  smaller  than  liver,  weighing  only  17  oz., 
but  it  furnishes  about  11  lbs.  pancreatic  fluid  daily.  Located 
in  abdominal  cavity  below  aorta  and  behind  stomach  and 
liver.  Ends  are  called  head  and  tail.  Shape  is  long,  tri- 
angular, much  like  a  big  salivary  gland.  Pancreatic  fluid 
empties  into  intestine  at  or  near  the  bile  duct.  This  fluid 
contains  four  different  ferments:  one  acts  on  starch,  one  on 
protein,  one  on  fats,  and  one  curdles  milk.  This  is  prob- 
ably the  most  important  of  the  digestive  fluids. 

The  large  intestine  is  about  25  feet  long  in  horse,  capacity 
33  gallons.  In  cow  42  feet  long,  capacity  18  gallons.  Parts  : 
caecum,  large  colon,  small  colon. 

Caecum  (blind  pouch)  in  horse  3|  feet  long,  capacity  l\ 
gallons.     Important  in  digestion  of  cellulose. 

Large  colon  in  horse  12  feet  long,  capacity  20  gallons. 

Small  colon  in  horse  10  feet  long,  capacity  6  gallons.  In 
cow  large  and  small  colon  are  studied  together,  and  are  35 
feet  long,  with  a  capacity  of  14  gallons. 

Large  intestine  of  both  animals  is  long,  large,  and  saccu- 
lated to  hold  contents  a  long  time  and  offer  a  large  amount 
of  absorbing  surface.  It  takes  contents  about  five  days  to 
pass  through  the  alimentary  tract  of  cow,  and  about  three 
days  to  pass  through  that  of  horse. 

Practical  exercise.  —  At  this  point  the  student  may  have 
a  practical  and  interesting  exercise  by  dissecting  out  the 
gullet,  stomach  and  intestines,  liver  and  pancreas  of  one  or 
more  domestic  animals.  Sheep  and  hogs  are  convenient  to 
handle  and  very  satisfactory  if  but  one  or  two  animals  can 


48  VETERINARY   STUDIES 

be  used.  This  work  may  be  taken  up  in  coiiiiection  with 
classes  in  "  Dressing  and  Curing  Meats  "  or  in  the  dissection 
room.  The  student  should  actually  see  and  handle  these 
organs,  and  should  measure  lengths  and  capacities  and 
weigh  the  various  organs  and  record  fully  by  notes  and 
drawing's. 


LECTURE  XI 

PHYSIOLOGY   OF   DIGESTION 

Definition.  —  Digestion  is  a  chemical  process  by  which 
food  matters  are  made  soluble  and  capable  of  absorption. 

The  digestive  fluids  are  saliva,  gastric  juice,  pancreatic 
juice,  bile,  and  intestinal  juice.  These  are  the  active  agents 
which  bring  about  the  chemical  changes  necessary  to  make 
food  matters  soluble  and  absorbable. 

Food  groups  are  of  two  general  classes:  organic  and  in- 
organic. 

The  organic  group  is  divided  into  three  subgroups:  car- 
bohydrates  (sugars  and  starches);  proteids  (egg  albumen, 
casein,  gluten,  etc.);    and  hydrocarbons  (fats  and  oils). 

The  inorganic  group  includes  water,  lime,  sulphur,  phos- 
phorus, etc. 

COURSE    AND    HISTORY    OF    FOOD    GROUPS 

Carbohydrates.  —  Starch  cells  are  broken  up  by  the  teeth, 
and  the  starch  is  changed  by  the  saliva  and  pancreatic 
juice  into  soluble  sugars.  Physiologists  differ  somewhat  as 
to  details,  but  during  the  process  of  digestion  at  least  two 
sugars  —  dextrose  (grape  sugar),  maltose,  and  dextrine,  an 
intermediate  body  between  sugar  and  starch,  are  formed. 
After  these  chemical  changes  comes  absorption,  then  dis- 
tribution. A  large  part  of  the  starch  products  are  taken 
into  the  portal  circulation  and  carried  to  the  liver.  The 
remainder  enters  the  general  circulation.  The  portion  car- 
ried to  the  liver  is  there  changed  back  to  a  form  of  starch, 
called  glycogen.  As  the  blood  loses  its  sugar,  it  is  resup- 
plied  from  the  liver.  Thus  the  liver  becomes  a  storehouse 
E  49 


50  VETERINARY   STUDIES 

for  surplus  sugar  and  at  the  same  time  acts  as  a  balance 
wheel  in  maintaining  a  uniform  percentage  of  this  material 
in  the  blood.  The  sugar  is  ultimately  oxidized,  liberating 
heat,  CO2,  and  water.  These  are  excreted  by  the  skin, 
lungs,  and  kidneys. 

Proteids.  — These  are  not  affected  by  the  saliva,  ])ut  are 
changed  to  soluble  peptone  by  the  gastric  and  pancreatic 
juices,  then  absorbed  into  the  blood  current,  and  ultimately 
distributed  to  tissue  cells  of  the  body  to  replace  worn-out 
parts  or  to  build  up  new  parts  in  growing  animals. 

It  has  been  held  that  proteid  matters  were  especially 
necessary  to  repair  tissue  worn  out  by  mechanical  work; 
but  there  is  good  reason  to  think  that  this  has  been  overesti- 
mated in  the  past,  and  that  the  carbohydrates  have  much 
to  do  with  the  ultimate  source  of  physical  power. 

It  is  probable  that  surplus  proteids  are  extensively  con- 
verted into  fat,  and  stored  as  such  in  the  tissues  of  the  fat- 
tening animal,  or  excreted  as  butter  fat  by  the  milch  cow 
or  nursing  mare.  The  remaining  proteids  are  finally  oxi- 
dized, and  excreted  from  the  body  as  COo,  urea,  and  water. 
The  urea  is  mainly  excreted  by  the  kidneys,  and  the  water 
by  all  the  excretory  organs. 

Fats,  or  hydrocarbons.  —  These  are  digested  mainly  by 
the  pancreatic  fluid.  They  are  not  acted  on  by  either 
saliva  or  gastric  juice  and  but  slightl}^  by  the  bile.  The 
pancreatic  fluid  emulsifies  a  portion  which  reaches  the 
lacteals  in  this  condition.  The  remainder  is  digested  by 
separating  the  glycerine  from  the  fatty  acid  (fat  consists  of  a 
fatty  acid  plus  glycerine).  Glycerine  is  readily  soluble  and 
easily  absorbed.  The  fatty  acid  unites  with  alkaline  ma- 
terial from  the  bile  and  pancreas  to  form  soluble  soap,  and 
thus  the  remainder  of  the  fat  is  al^sorbed.  Then  comes  ab- 
sorption of  this  emulsified  and  digested  fat,  distribution  in 
the  blood  current,  and  finally  assimilation,  i.e.  building 
into  cell  tissues  or  oxidation.  It  may  be  deposited  either 
into  and  become  a  part  of  the  cell  bodies  or  it  may  be  de- 
posited between  the  cells  and  thus  become  a  stored  reserve. 


PHYSIOLOGY  OF  DIGESTION  51 

Under  some  conditions  this  storing  ii])  of  fatty  matter  may 
constitute  a  diseased  condition,  as  when  the  heart  muscle 
undergoes  fatty  infiltration.  The  final  changes  which  fats 
undergo  are  oxidation  and  then  excretion  as  COo  and  water. 

Practical  application  and  suggestions.  —  Mature  animals 
need  a  constant  supply  of  food  to  supply  heat  and  energy 
for  physical  work,  and  in  the  case  of  fattening  animals  for 
conversion  into  storage  fat.  Young  and  growing  animals 
must  have  food  to  supply  heat  and  energy  for  physical  work, 
and  in  addition  food  from  which  new  cells  may  be  built. 

The  more  thorough  the  digestion  and  absorption,  the 
better  will  be  the  returns  for  food  consumed. 

Thorough  digestion  with  imperfect  absorption  means 
wasted  feed  and  useless  work  for  the  digestive  organs. 

Generous  feeding  therefore  is  not  enough.  It  must  be 
done  intelligently. 

Best  results  are  secured  when  the  bowels  are  in  a  medium 
condition  between  diarrhea  and  constipation. 

Both  digestion  and  absorption  depend  to  a  considerable 
extent  upon  the  condition  of  the  mucous  membrane  lining 
the  digestive  tube  and  through  which  absorption  must  take 
place. 

Water  horses  before  feeding  and  do  not  give  more  than 
one  half  pail  within  an  hour  after  feeding,  if  you  wish  to  get 
the  very  best  results  from  food  consumed  with  the  least  risk 
to  health. 

There  is  usually  no  profit  in  grinding  grain  for  horses,  un- 
less they  have  poor  teeth  or  eat  rapidly,  and  yet  the  old 
street-car  system  may  be  practical  and  economical  when 
done  on  a  large  scale,  if  the  mechanical  work  can  be  done 
chcapl3\  This  method  is  to  cut  and  wet  the  hay  or  straw, 
then  mix  in  the  ground  grain.  This  is  a  very  safe  method 
and  secures  thorough  digestion  and  absorption,  and  in  ad- 
dition the  horses  so  fed  are  not  stufTed  with  hay. 

Feed  only  as  much  hay  at  one  time  as  the  horse  will  clean 
up  at  each  feed  with  the  grain,  approximately  10  lbs.  to  15 
lbs.  per  24  hours.     Feeders  are  usually  surprised  to  find  how 


52  VETERINARY  STUDIES 

well  their  horses  do  with  greatly  reduced  hay  ration  and  the 
same  grain.  There  is  less  danger  from  stomach  and  bowel 
troubles,  and  almost  no  danger  at  all  from  heaves. 

Beware  of  dry  bran  for  horses  that  eat  hurriedly.  They 
are  liable  to  choke  on  it. 

When  an  animal  is  choked,  do  not  try  to  force  any  straight 
and  stiff  object  down  its  throat.  There  is  great  danger  of 
rupturing  the  esophagus  near  the  pharynx. 

The  cow  has  an  entirely  different  stomach  as  to  its  plan 
and  size,  and  the  intestinal  canal  is  nearly  twice  as  long. 
Her  large  paunch  and  the  other  stomachs,  as  well  as  the 
long  intestine,  indicate  that  she  can  utilize  a  coarser  diet 
than  the  horse,  and  that  she  can  digest  and  absorb  such 
foods  more  thoroughly.  The}'  also  indicate  that  nature  in- 
tends her  to  eat  larger  quantities  at  a  time  and  at  longer 
intervals  than  the  horse,  and  that  the  same  is  true  as  to  the 
water  she  drinks. 

Idle  horses  are  frequently  overfed.  This  is  not  only  a 
waste  of  food  but  an  actual  injury  to  the  horse,  and  gives 
danger  of  such  diseases  as  azoturia,  lymphangitis  (elephant 
leg),  and  heaves. 

A  horse  on  ordinary  work  needs  from  30  to  50  per  cent 
more  grain  with  the  same  roughage  as  compared  with  idle 
horses.  The  horse  that  is  in  high  flesh  and  idle  needs  still 
less  grain  as  compared  with  the  horse  that  works.  Horses 
on  winter  pasture,  cornfields,  etc.,  iieed  from  one  third  to 
one  fourth  as  much  grain  as  when  at  moderate  work.  The 
horse  that  is  off  work  should  have  exercise  every  day  if 
possible.  Exercise  lessens  very  much  the  danger  from  many 
diseases. 


LECTURE  XII 


URINARY   ORGANS   AND   MAMMARY   GLANDS 

Urinary  organs  are  kidneys,  ureters,  bladder,  urethra. 

Kidneys.  —  These  important  organs  are  situated  in  the 
sublumbar  regions,  supported  in  place  by  large  blood  vessels 
and  connective  tissue.  They  differ  in  shape,  size,  and  loca- 
tion, the  right  one  being  larger,  farther  forward,  and  more 
nearly  round.  Each  is  covered  by  a  fibrous  capsule  from 
which  bundles  of 
connective  tissue 
branch  to  penetrate 
the  organ  and  form 
a  framework. 

Internal  structure. 
—  On  cutting  open 
a  kidney  we  may 
see  two  distinct  por- 
tions separated  by 
a  wavy  line,  and  a 
cavity  at  the  root. 
The  two  portions  are 

.  .        1     /       ^   •  ^    \  a,  Cortical  portion  ;    b,  medullary  portion;  d,  d,  d^ 

cortical    (outside),      peivia  ;    0,  ureter. 

medullary  (center). 

The  cavity  at  the  root,  called  pelvis,  is  merely  the  funnel- 
shaped  origin  of  the  ureter. 

The  arterioles  terminate  and  the  urine  tubules  have  their 
origin  in  the  cortical  portion.  These  httle  urine  tubes  make 
up  a  large  part  of  the  bulk  of  the  kidney.  Each  tubule  be- 
gins somew^here  in  the  cortical  portion  in  a  little  saclike 
cavity,  within  which  is  a  tangled  network  of  finest  arterioles. 

53 


Fig.  24. 


Lengthwise  Section  of  the  Horse's 
Kidney. 


54  VETERINARY   STUDIES 

The  little  sac  narrows  at  the  open  end,  and  from  this  nar- 
rowed neck  continue  the  tubules.  Each  tubule  makes  cer- 
tain convolutions,  then  descends  to  the  medullary  portion, 
thence  back  to  the  cortical,  where  it  makes  certain  other 
convolutions,  and  finally  terminates  in  a  larger  duct  through 
which  the  urine  escapes  to  the  pelvis  of  the  kidney  and  then 
into  the  ureter.  Each  tubule  is  thus  very  long  in  proportion 
to  its  size,  and  there  are  a  large  number  of  them. 

Function  of  the  kidneys :  (a)  Removal  of  useless  or  waste 
and  poisonous  materials  from  the  blood;  (6)  removal  of 
normal  substances  from  the  blood  when  they  are  there  in 
excess;  (c)  to  keep  the  blood  normally  alkaline  by  remov- 
ing from  or  adding  alkaline  materials  to  the  blood  as 
needed. 

How  accomplished.  —  The  water  and  salts  in  solution  are 
removed  from  the  blood  within  the  little  sacs  at  the  begin- 
nings of  the  tubules  by  a  process  of  filtration  under  pressure, 
the  pressure  on  the  blood,  inside  the  fine  arterioles  within 
the  urine  tubule  sac,  being  greater  than  the  pressure  on 
the  water  in  the  sac  around  the  arterioles.  The  urea,  albu- 
men, etc.,  are  passed  out  into  the  water  farther  along  the 
tubule.  These  are  taken  from  the  blood  by  the  cells  which 
line  the  tubules. 

Composition.  —  Urine  is  composed  of  water,  salts  of  so- 
dium, potassium,  calcium,  etc.,  together  with  various  organic 
matters,  as  urea  and  uric  acid,  and  various  aromatic  sub- 
stances which  give  the  odor.  Normal  reaction  in  herbiv- 
orous animals  is  alkaline.  Specific  gravity  for  horse  is 
1036,  and  for  cow  1025.  Either  may  vary  within  the  normal 
range.  Horse  excretes  about  10  pints  in  24  hours,  and  the 
cow  about  25  pints.  Within  limits  the  more  nitrogen  in 
feed  of  cow  the  greater  amount  of  urine  is  excreted.  Urine 
is  excreted  by  the  kidneys  continuously  and  runs  drop  by 
drop  into  the  bladder. 

Ureters.  —  These  are  two  slender  tubes  which  conduct 
urine  from  kidneys  to  bladder.  They  are  about  the  size  of 
a  goose  quill,  about  one  foot  long,  and  terminate   at  the 


URINARY   ORGANS  AND  MAMMARY   GLANDS 


55 


L.HtDNEY 


R.  KIDNEY 


bladder,  passing  for  an  inch  along  between  the  muscular 
and  mucous  coats  of  that  organ,  before  reaching  the  in- 
terior. This  is  to  prevent  backward  flow  of  urine  into 
ureters. 

Bladder.  —  This  is  a  muscular  sac,  a  urine  reservoir,  lo- 
cated in  the  inferior  and  anterior  part  of  the  pelvic  cavity 
and  ovoid  in  shape.  This 
organ  is  supported  in 
place  by  a  variety  of  liga- 
ments. It  is  in  relation 
above,  in  the  male,  to 
the  rectum;  in  the  fe- 
male, to  the  vagina  and 
below  to  the  floor  of  the 
pelvis.  It  is  covered  in 
front  by  peritoneum  and 
is  in  relation  to  the 
coiled  small  intestine. 

Openings.  —  Three  on 
the  posterior  of  the  or- 
gan; viz.  one  to  the 
urethra,  and  tw^o  for  the 
ureters.  The  neck  of 
the  bladder  is  composed 
of  a  band  of  yellow 
elastic  tissue  around 
urethra  and  is  pulled 
open  by  longitudinal 
muscle  fibers  when  urine 
is  to  be  passed.   There  are 


URETER 


URETER 


Fig.  25. 


Urinary  Apparatus  in  Diagram. 
{M.  H.  R.) 
P,  A,  Posterior  aorta  ;   D,  D,   renal  arteries  ; 
...  1  •        ,  P,  peritoneal  coat  of  bladder;  Mus.,  muscular 

no   distinct  sphincter   or  po^t;  Muc,  mucous  coat, 
muscle  fibers  at  the  neck. 

Coats.  —  Three:     mucouS;    muscular    (of  several   layers), 
and  serous  (peritoneal). 

Urethra.  —  This  is  the  canal  which  conducts  urine  from 
bladder  to  exterior  of  body. 


56  VETERINARY  STUDIES 

MAMMARY    GLANDS 

.  The  cow's  udder  is  taken  as  a  type.  The  glands  are  lo- 
cated under  the  inguinal  region  and  supported  by  skin, 
loose  connective  tissue,  and  bands  of  white  fibrous  tissue 
which  attach  to  the  fibrous  tunic  of  the  abdomen  and  act  as 
ligaments  to  help  support  the  organ.  The  udder  is  covered 
by  thin,  soft  skin  and  fine  hair. 

Anatomy.  —  The  udder  is  divided  into  two  lateral  halves- 
Each  half  has  two  glands,  front  and  back,  and  each  half  is 
-  ,  incased   in   a  fibrous   sac  of  yellow 

elastic  tissue. 

The   substance   of  each    gland   is 

made  up  of  yellow  glandular  tissue, 

connective     tissue,     nerves,     blood 

vessels,  etc.     Each  gland  is  divided 

_  ^      ^  into    lobes,    and    these    again   into 

Fig.  26.  —  One   Quarter  and 

Teat  of  Cow's  Udder.  lobuleS. 

.■    ■    '\  There  is  one  small  milk  duct  for 

C,  milk   cistern.      Note  con- 
striction  just  below  the  cistern,    eacll      lobule.  i  llCSe      UUltc       into 

Another  constriction  at  end  of    l„„„.p^     „,-,^     l«ro-Pr     dlicts       ind    thuS 
teat.     Holes,  shown  in  the  gland    ^-^Ig^r    .iUU    larger     QUCIb,     dllU     Umb 

above,    are    milk    ducts    cut  the  milk  is  couveyed  into  the  milk 

across.  .    , 

cistern. 

A  milk  cistern  is  located  just  above  the  base  of  each  teat. 
This  receives  milk  from  the  milk  ducts  —  capacity,  1  pint 
to  1  quart.  Milk  escapes  from  cistern  through  a  single 
large  canal. 

Development.  —  The  gland  structure  is  undeveloped  and 
rudimentary  until  maturity,  and  only  becomes  active  at  the 
close  of  the  first  pregnancy. 

Function.  —  Natural  function  is  supplying  sufficient  milk 
to  the  calf  until  it  can  subsist  on  other  foods. 

Alilk  production.  —  The  production  of  the  casein,  sugar, 
fat,  etc.,  is  a  manufacturing  process,  not  mere  filtration ;  for 
i;he:e  is  ho  casein  or  milk  sugar  in  blood  and  but  very  little 
fat.  Secreting  cells  take  certain  elements  from  the  blood 
and  put  them  together  so  as  to  make  the  milk  ingredients. 


URINARY  ORGANS  AND  MAMMARY  GLANDS  57 

Products.  —  Mill:  is  a  complex  alkaline  fluid ;  specific 
gravity  1018  to  1040,  composed  of  oil  globules  suspended  in 
milk  plasma,  and  is  therefore  an  emulsion.  Milk  globules 
consist  almost  entirely  of  fat,  with 
a  thin  coating  of  casein.  They 
are  from  .0004  to  .0012  of  an  inch 
in  diameter.  Milk  plasma  consists 
of  water,  with  sugar,  salt,  albu- 
men, and  whatever  may  be  in 
solution  in  the  water. 

Cohslrum  is  a  fimd  which  ac-  "ShtSTd'^^S.  ^uon^LT 
cumulates  in  the  udder  during  the 

latter  part  of  pregnancy,  and  differs  from  milk  in  con- 
taining the  colostrum  cells,  a  few  oil  globules,  much  albu- 
men, and  but  little  casein,  fat,  or  sugar.  It  has  a  mild,  ca- 
thartic effect  on  the  young  animals. 

The  quantity  and  quality  of  the  milk  depends  on  several 
factors:  food,  period  of  lactation,  period  of  gestation,  con- 
dition of  the  nervous  system,  quantity  of  blood  passing 
through  the  udder,  amount  of  water  in  the  food,  individual 
peculiarity,  or  hereditary  tendency.  Breed  would  naturally 
be  included  under  the  latter. 

Blood  supply.  —  The  mammary  glands  receive  their  sup- 
ply through  the  mammary  artery,  which  distributes  branches 
through  the  two  glands  in  each  half  of  the  udder,  one  artery 
on  each  side.  The  blood  for  one  half  the  udder  thus  comes 
through  the  external  iliac  artery,  then  through  a  branch  of 
that,  the  prepubic,  and  then  through  a  branch  of  the  pre- 
pubic,  the  external  pudic. 

The  mammary  artery  is  one  of  the  terminal  branches  of  the 
external  pudic.  When  the  cow  stands  still,  more  l:)lood  flows 
through  the  udder  than  when  she  is  exercising.  The  large 
vein  which  may  be  felt  in  front  of  the  udder  on  each  side,  and 
•called  by  dairymen  the  '^  milk  vein,"  is  properly  the  sub- 
cutaneous abdominal  vein. 

Nerve  supply.  —  The  mammary  glands  have  their  nerve 
supply  through  the  first  lumbar  pair  of  spinal  nerves.     The 


58  VETERINARY   STUDIES 

nerve  trunk  which  reaches  the  ghxnd  on  each  side  divides 
into  three  branches,  the  second  and  third  of  which  reg'uhite 
in  an  interesting  way  the  varicnis  phenomena  of  cell  activity, 
blood  supply,  and  caliber  of  the  milk  ducts.  These  processes 
are  all  directly  under  control  of  the  nervous  system. 

Why  last  milk  drawn  is  richer  in  fat  than  the  first:  There 
is  a  comparatively  small  amount  of  milk  stored  in  the  cis- 
terns and  ducts  when  milking  begins,  and  then  as  milking 
goes  on  the  secreting  cells  manufacture  the  fat,  casein, 
sugar,  etc.,  more  rapidly  in  proportion  than  the  process  l)y 
which  water  and  matters  in  solution  are  taken  from  the 
blood,  and  thus  the  later  milk  has  less  water  or  more  solids 
than  the  first  drawn. 

Practical  suggestions.  —  Mare's  milk  differs  from  cow's 
milk  in  possessing  more  water  and  sugar  and  less  fat,  casein, 
albumen,  and  mineral  matter.  Her  udder  differs  from  the 
cow's  udder  in  having  but  one  gland  in  each  half.  There 
are  from  two  to  four  cisterns  at  the  base  of  the  teat  instead 
of  one,  and  each  cistern  has  an  excretory  canal  to  the  point 
of  the  teat. 

A  cow's  udder  may  consist  largely  of  gland  tissue  with 
just  enough  connective  tissue  to  support  it  and  hold  shape; 
it  may  consist  largely  of  connective  tissue  with  a  relatively 
smaller  amount  of  gland  tissue.  What  is  the  probable 
structure  of  the  udder  that  remains  large  and  hard  after 
milking?  What  are  some  of  the  reasons  why  small  udders 
may  produce  well  and  large  udders  produce  poorly? 

Note  the  large  vein  running  from  under  the  udder  for- 
ward under  the  belly.  This  is  the  abdominal  siil)cutaneous 
vein  previously  mentioned;  it  varies  greatly  in  size  and 
shape,  and  drains  the  inguinal  region,  including  the  udder. 
What  possible  relation  is  there  between  the  size  of  this 
vein  and  milk-producing  capacity  of  the  udder? 

What  effect  has  unusual  nerve  excitement  on  the  produc- 
tion of  milk?     Explain  this  effect. 


LECTURE    XIII 


THE   FOOT 


The  foot,  technically,  includes  all  structures  at  and  below 
the  knee  in  front  and  the  hock  behind.  This  lecture  only 
deals  with  that  portion  of  the  foot  below  the  ankle. 

Bones.  —  First  phalanx ;  two  sesttmoid  bones;  second  pha- 
lanx; navicular  bone;  and  third 
phalanx.     For  first   and  second 
phalanges,    sesamoids,    and    na- 
vicular, see  Lecture  III. 

The  third  'phalanx  is  an  irregu- 
lar bone  of  loose  spongy  texture. 
The  body  is  shaped  somewhat 
like  the  hoof  and  shows  at  the 
top  in  front  a  jjrominence  called 
the  pyramidal  process,  and  on 
each  side  a  projection  called  the 
wing,  under  which  mav  be  seen 
a  groove,  through  which  groove 
an  artery  passes  on  its  way  to 
form  part  of  an  arch  within  the 
substance  of  the  bone.  From 
this  arch  is  given  off  the 
branches  which  distribute 
nourishment  to  the  vascular 
parts.  Above  the  wings,  inside 
the  hoof,  are  cavities  into  which 
the  lateral  cartilages  fit.  They 
are  of  firm  cartilage  and  may  be  felt  above  the  crown  of 
the  hoof  on  each  side.     They   are   attached  below  to   the 

59 


Fig.  28. —  Bones  of  the  Horse's- 
Foot. 

1,  Metacarpal;  2,  2,  sf  samoids ; 
3,  first  phalanx  ;  4,  second  phalanx  : 
5,  na^-icular  bone  ;  6,  third  pha- 
lanx (os  pedis)  ;  7,  basilar  process  ; 
S,  S,  wings ;    9,  pyramidal  process. 


60  VETERINARY   STUDIES 

wings  of  the  third  phalanx  and  plantar  cushion.  To 
the  front  and  sides  of  the  third  phalanx  are  attached 
the  sensitive  laminae.'  The  inferior  surface  is  concaved  to 
receive  the  sensitive  sole,  or  velvety  tissue. 

The  navicular  hone  is  also  a  sesamoid  bone;  i.e.  it  is 
formed  in  tendon.  It  is  a  short  bone  in  structure,  but  rather 
long  and  slender  in  shape,  and  placed  crosswise  just  back 
of  the  articulation  between  the  second  and  third  phalanges. 
Its  inferior  surface  is  smooth  except  for  a  slight  ridge  in 
the  center.  The  tendon  of  the  deep  flexor  muscle  passes 
over  this  surface  on  its  wa}''  to  its  insertion  on  the  bottom 
of  the  third  phalanx.  The  ends  of  the  navicular  bone  unite 
on  each  side  with  the  wings  of  the  third  phalanx  by  tough 
fii)rous  tissue. 

The  horny  hoof.  — -  This  is  to  be  regarded  as  an  appendage 
of  the  skin.  It  covers  all  of  the  third  phalanx  and  part  of 
the  second.     It  is  divided  for  study  into  wall,  sole,  and  frog. 

The  wall  is  that  part  w^hich  may  be  seen  when  looking  at 
the  hoof  in  front  and  at  the  sides.  It  is  composed  of  horny, 
tubular  fibers,  which  grow  from  the  coronary  band.  Be- 
tween these  tubular  fibers  is  a  material  which  holds  them 
together.  The  wall  is  divided  into  toe,  quarters,  and  heels. 
At  the  top  is  a  groove  into  which  the  coronary  band  fits, 
the  crown  of  the  hoof.  The  wall  unites  below  with  the  sole. 
The  smooth  shining  layer  which  should  cover  the  whole 
surface  of  the  wall  is  periople.  The  duty  of  this  layer  is 
to  prevent  undue  evaporation  from  the  hoof.  Beneath  the 
periople  is  the  horny  wall  which  gives  shape  to  the  foot 
and  protects  the  soft  parts  within.  Inside  this  hard  layer 
come  the  laminae;  these  are  thin  leaves  of  horny  material 
w^hich  dovetail  in  with  the  sensitive  laminae. 

The  sole  is  composed  of  horny  material  resembling  that 
of  the  wall.  It  is  concave  below,  convex  above.  Its  outer 
border  unites  with  the  wall  at  the  "  white  line."  Its  upper 
surface  is  covered  by  the  vascular  velvety  tissue. 

The  frog  is  a  V-shaped  elastic  pad  with  a  depression, 
called  by  horsemen  "  the  cleft,"  in  its  ground  surface.     It  is 


THE   FOOT 


61 


located  between  the  bars  on  each  side,  and  below  the  plantar 
cushion.  Its  function  is  to  act  as  a  pad  and  to  lessen  jar 
when  traveling. 

The  matrix  (horn-generating  membrane).  —  This  fits  inside 
the  horny  part  of  the  hoof  and  covers  like  a  stocking  the 
other  parts  within  the  hoof.     It  is  from  this  that  all  the 


Fig.  29.  — The  Hoof. 

The  Wall.    A,  Toe  ;  B,  quarter  ;  C,  heel. 

Ground  Surface,   a-a,  Toe  ;  a-b,  quarter  ;    h-d,  heel ;  c,  bar  ;  /,  /,  /,  sole  ;  g,  white 
line  ;  h,  frog  ;  I,  cleft  of  the  frog. 

horny  parts  grow.  It  is  composed  of  three  parts:  (1)  coro- 
nary band;  (2)  sensitive  laminae;  (3)  velvety  tissue. 

The  coronary  hand  is  the  elastic  ring  that  may  be  felt  at 
the  crown  of  the  hoof.  It  is  studded  with  little  papiUae. 
From  these  grow  downward  the  tubular  fibers  which  make 
up  the  hard  layer  of  the  wall. 

The  sensitive  lamince  are  500  to  600  layers  of  vascular 
tissue  into  which  fit  and  from  which  grow  the  horny  laminae 
of  the  wall.  An  inflammation  here  is  called  laminitis  or 
founder. 

The  velvety  tissue  covers  the  upper  surface  of  the  hard  sole. 
Like  the  coronary  band  and  sensitive  laminae,  it  is  sensitive 
and  richly  supplied  with  blood.  The  under  surface  is 
thickly  studded  with  papiUae,  similar  to  those  of  the  coronary 
band,  and  from  these  in  a  similar  way  grow  the  shorter 
tubular  fibers  which  make  up  the  hard  sole  and  frog.  The 
student  can  easily  understand  why  injury  to  the  coronary 


62  VETERINARY   STUDIES 

band,  which  results  in  a  heahng  by  scar  tissue,  leaves  a 
split  which  lengthens  downward  in  the  hoof;  why  founder 
is  so  painful;  and  why  deep  injuries  to  the  sole  are  so  apt 
to  be  serious. 

The  plantar  cushion  is  a  wedge-shaped  mass  of  elastic  tis- 
sue located  between  the  lateral  cartilages  on  each  side,  below 
the  sole  of  the  third  phalanx  and  above  the  horny  sole  of  the 
hoof.  It  assists  the  horny  frog  in  lessening  jar  in  travel  and 
protects  the  insertion  of  the  deep  flexor  tendon. 

"  The  back  tendons  "  is  a  term  used  by  horsemen  to  in- 
clude the  tendons  of  the  superficial  and  deep  flexor  muscles 
of  the  foot  and  the  suspensory  ligament. 

The  superficial  flexor  muscle,  of  the  front  foot,  has  its 
origin  on  the  lower  end  of  the  humerus  and  its  insertion  by 
tendon  on  the  sides  of  the  second  phalanx.  Its  function  is 
to  flex  the  foot  at  the  first  interphalangeal  articulation. 

The  deep  flexor  muscle,  of  the  front  foot,  has  its  origin  in 
common  with  the  superficial  flexor  on  the  lower  end  of  the 
humerus,  and  its  insertion  by  a  tendon  which  spreads  out  on 
the  sole  of  the  third  phalanx.  Its  duty  is  to  flex  the  second 
and  to  assist  in  flexing  the  first  interphalangeal  articulation. 

The  suspensory  ligament  is  broad  and  very  strong.  It  at- 
taches by  its  upper  end  to  the  carpal  bones  and  to  the  large 
metacarpal.  Its  lower  end  divides  into  two  branches  which 
pass  forward  on  each  side  and  attach  to  the  front  tendon. 
Its  duty  is  to  support  the  metacarpo-jjlialangeal  articulation 
(fetlock). 

PRACTICAL   APPLICATION 

The  shape  and  peculiar  characteristics  of  each  hoof  cor- 
respond in  correlation  with  the  remainder  of  the  limb, 
except  as  the  hoof  has  been  varied  by  artificial  means.  80 
in  judging  the  hoof  it  is  also  necessary  to  consider  the  char- 
acteristics of  the  entire  limb. 

The  front  limb  may  be  said  to  be  normal  in  position  and 
direction  when  it  appears  on  front  view  that  a  vertical  line 
from  the  front  of  the  scapulo-humeral  articulation  passes- 


THE   FOOT 


63 


Fig.  30.  — The  Hoof  Matrix. 


down  the  center  of  the  hmb  and  to  the  ground  at  the  center 
of  the  toe. 

On  viewing  such  a  Hmb  from  the  side  it  should  be  evi- 
dent that  a  vertical  line  downward  from  the  bony  promi- 
nence at  the  middle  of  the  scapula 
would  divide  the  external  surface 
of  the  limb  into  two  equal  por- 
tions and  reach  the  ground  im- 
mediately back  of  the  heels. 

Viewing  the  hoof  and  pastern 
alone  it  should  be  seen  that  the 
hoof  is  in  direct  line  with  the  pas- 
tern and  metacarpal  or  metatarsal 
bones,  and  that  a  line  extending 
from  the  center  of  the  cannon 
through  the  center  of  the  pastern 
would  pass  through  the  center  of 

.■1        ,  1,    Periople   ring;     2,    coronary 

Xne  lOe.  band  ;      3,    sensitive    laminae  ;     4, 

The    hind    limb    when    viewed  ^'^*^i;     Velvety  tissue  not  showa 

on  the  sole. 

from  behind  should  show  that  a 

vertical  line  downward  from  the  prominence  at  the  pos- 
terior portion  of  the  pelvis  on  each  side  (tuberosity  of  the 
ischium)  would  divide  the  entire  limb  into  two  equal 
portions  and  reach  the  ground  back  of  the  center  of  the 
horny  frog. 

Viewed  from  the  side  the  normal  hind  limb  should  indicate 
that  a  vertical  line,  dropped  from  the  prominence  of  the 
articulation  between  the  femur  and  pelvis,  should  reach  the 
ground  opposite  a  point  near  the  center  of  the  hoof.  This 
line  is  somewhat  difficult  to  get,  and  of  less  value  for  the 
reason  that  a  slight  leaning  forward  or  backward  disturbs  it. 
This  should  be  taken  when  the  horse  is  standing  with  the 
limb  squarely  under  the  body  in  a  natural  position  for  the 
particular  animal  examined. 

For  the  front  hoof  the  wall  at  the  toe  and  the  anterior 
surface  of  the  pastern  should  make  an  angle  of  not  less 
than  45  nor  more  than  50  degrees  with  the  level  unround 


64  VETERINARY  STUDIES 

surface,  the  wall  at  the  toe  and  the  anterior  surface  of  the 
pastern  having  the  same  slant. 

For  a  normal  hind  hoof  the  angle  should  be  from  50  to  55 
degrees,  and  the  anterior  faces  of  the  hoof  and  pastern 
should  still  have  the  same  slant. 

A  normal  hoof  has  a  good  quality  of  horn,  wide  heels,  and 
circular  rather  than  long  and  narrow  ground  surface.  The 
hind  hoof  is  narrower  and  more  pointed  at  the  toe  than  the 
front  hoof.  The  wall  from  coronary  band  to  ground  surface 
should  be  straight  and  smooth;  i.e.  no  ridges  or  grooves. 
The  heels  should  be  rounded,  well  developed,  and  of  the  same 
height  at  the  top  of  the  coronary  band.  The  sole  should  be 
distinctly  concave  and  show  no  marked  separation  from  the 
wall.  The  frog  should  be  large  and  elastic,  the  two  portions 
of  the  same  size,  with  a  shallow  groove  along  the  center. 
The  bars  should  be  straight,  extending  forward  and  inward. 
The  lateral  cartilages,  felt  above  the  coronary  band  on  each 
side,  should  be  elastic.  The  sole  in  the  angles  between  the  bar 
and  the  wall  at  the  heel  should  not  show  red  stain.  There 
should  be  no  separation  of  the  horny  fibers  as  in  toe  or 
quarter  cracks.  The  wall  should  be  reasonably  thick. 
This  can  be  usually  determined  by  tapping  the  wall  with  a 
hammer,  noticing  its  rigidity. 


LECTURE  XIV 

PATHOLOGY 

Physiology  is  the  study  of  the  body  organs  and  their 
functions  in  health. 

Patholog}f^is  the  study  of  diseased  organs  and  tlieir  dis- 
ordered functions.  Healthy  conditions  are  taken  as  a  basis 
for  studying  the  diseased  conditions.  Pathological  processes 
are  but  healthy  ones  modified. 

^  HYPEREMIA    CONGESTION 

Definition.  —  Hypera?mia  is  an  abnormal  accumulation  of 
blood  in  any  part,  due  either  to  an  increased  inflow  or  a 
decreased  outflow.  The  color  of  an  hyperaemic  part  may  be 
distinctly  red  in  active  hypersemia  or  bluish  in  passive 
hyperaemia. 

There  are  two  kinds  of  hyperapniia,  active  and  passive. 
Generally  speaking,  both  types  are  local  conditions. 

Active  hyperaemia  is  characterized  by  an  excessive  quan- 
tity of  blood  in  the  arteries  of  some  tissue  or  organ.  It  is 
caused  by  agencies  that  produce  dilation  of  the  arteries,  as 
body  temperature  disturbances,  chemical  irritants,  etc.  It 
may  be  the  result  of  lack  of  blood  elsewhere  in  the  body; 
e.g.  sudden  chilling  of  the  skin  of  a  horse  frequently  pro- 
duces active  hypersemia  of  the  lung  or  other  internal  organs. 
Active  hypersemia  is  usually  temporary,  and  permanent  in- 
jury may  be  slight  or  may  not  occur.  An  active  hypersemia 
may  lead,  if  long  continued,  to  enlargement  of  the  part  or 
organ.  The  vessels  themselves  may  enlarge  to  several 
times  their  former  size. 

Passive  hypercemia  (venous  or  mechanical)  is  a  condition 
in   which  the   current   of  venous  blood  is  obstructed  and 


6(5  VETERINARY   STUDIES 

blood  accumulates  in  veins  and  capillaries.  The  condition 
may  be  due  to  weakened  heart  action  or  to  obstruction  in 
veins,  and  less  frequently  to  obstruction  in  arteries  or  capil- 
laries. Some  of  the  local  changes  that  may  follow  passive 
congestion  are  exudation  of  serum,  abnormal  development 
of  connective  tissue,  clots  in  the  vessels,  or  local  tissue 
death. 

ANiEMIA 

Definition.  —  Aniemia  is  an  abnormal  condition  charac- 
terized by  a  deficiency  or  poor  quality  of  blood.  Anaemia 
due  to  deficiency  may  thus  be  either  general  or  local;  if 
to  poor  quality,  it  is  always  general. 

General  anaemia.  —  This  refers  to  a  state  of  ill  health 
characterized  by  general  lack  of  blood  —  usually  to  lack  of 
red  blood  corpuscles  or  lack  of  other  constituents.  This 
may  be  caused  by  hemorrhage,  poor  nutrition,  destruction 
of  red  cells,  or  disease  of  blood-forming  tissues. 

Local  anaemia.  —  Local  anaemia  may  be  due  to :  (a)  pres- 
sure upon  the  part;  (6)  contraction  of  arteries  supplying 
this  part;  (c)  excessive  blood  elsewhere  in  the  body;  (d)  cold 
or  chemical  agents. 

Results.  —  Anaemia  results  in  general  in  tissue  starvation 
and  deprivation  of  oxygen.  Its  seriousness  depends  upon 
its  extent,  location,  and  duration.  Aniemia  may  be  very 
serious  in  vital  organs  or  much  less  importaiit  in  such  organs 
as  the  skin  and  muscles.  During  anaemia,  nutritive  changes 
are  restricted  and  the  processes  of  excretion  are  checked. 
Waste  products  therefore  accumulate. 

Complete  and  persistent  anaemia  results  in  death  of  the 
tissue  (necrosis). 

INFLAMMATION 

Definition. — Inflammation  is  the  response  of  a  tissue 
to  an  injury.  It  is  a  complex  pathological  process  consist- 
ing of  disturbances  of  circulation,  and  constructive  and  de- 
structive tissue  changes.  Pain,  heat,  redness,  and  swelling 
arc  the  cardinal  symptoms  of  inflammation. 


PATHOLOGY  67 

The  changes  which  occur  in  the  l)lood  vessels  during  in- 
flammation are:  (1)  diUUation  of  arteries,  capillaries,  and 
veins;  (2)  current  velocity  increased  at  first,  then  decreased; 
(.3)  when  the  velocity  begins  to  decrease,  the  corpuscles  col- 
lect in  capillaries  and  small  veins  and  the  white  corpuscles 
adhere  to  their  walls,  thus  obstructing  the  blood  current; 
(4)  both  kinds  of  corpuscles  and  the  blood  plasma  may  pass 
through  walls  of  small  veins  and  capillaries. 

The  changes  of  an  inflamed  tissue  are  variable.  In  the 
beginning  of  an  inflammation  the  causing  agent  produces 
cell  degeneration,  and  in  some  instances  cell  death,  whereas 
in  the  later  stages  of  inflammation  there  may  be  cell  mul- 
tiplication and  construction  of  tissue;  e.g.  healing  of  a 
wound. 

Inflammation  varies  according  to  (a)  resisting  power  of 
tissue,  (5)  activity  of  cause,  (c)  length  of  time  cause  is  in 
action. 

Causes  of  inflammation  are:  (1)  Mechanical  injury, 
chemical  action,  excessive  tissue  activity,  extremes  of  heat 
and  cold,  etc.  Inflammation  thus  caused  has  little  tend- 
ency to  spread  beyond  the  part  injured,  and  there  is  usually 
little  or  no  pus  unless  pus  germs  invade  the  inflamed  area. 

(2)  "  Microbes,"  ''  microorganisms,"  ''  bacteria,"  and 
^'  germs  "  are  synonymous  terms  as  commonly  used.  These 
can  cause  inflammation  without  the  aid  of  other  local  injury. 
Inflammation  may  be  caused  directly  by  their  mechanical 
presence  and  activit}',  but  it  is  more  commonly  caused  by 
chemical  agents  which  the  germs  manufacture. 

Terminations.  —  Inflammation  may  terminate  in  (a)  reso-, 
lution,  (6)  death  of  the  tissue,  or  (c)  new  growths. 

Resolution.  —  In  this  case  the  exudate  is  liquefied  and 
removed  by  the  lymphatics  and  veins,  or  it  is  carried  out  by 
leucocytes  (white  corpuscles).  The  blood  current  then 
starts  again  in  the  small  vessels;  the  corpuscles  move  away 
in  the  reestablished  current  or  else  become  degenerated  and 
then  removed,  and  the  organ  or  tissue  becomes  normal 
again. 


68  VETERINARY  STUDIES 

Local  death.  —  If  death  of  the  part  occurs,  tissues  may 
be  dissolved  and  absorbed  or  the  part  may  slough.  lu 
either  case  the  inflammation  may  extend  to  and  involve 
surrounding  tissues,  and  thus  the  life  of  the  animal  may  be 
ultimately  destroyed. 

If  new  growths  occur,  there  develop  new  tissues;  e.g. 
tumors,  granulations  in  a  wound,  and  scar  tissue. 

FEVER 

Definition.  —  Fever  is  an  abnormal  condition  character- 
ized by  an  excess  of  heat  in  the  body.  It  is  not  a  disease, 
but  merely  a  symptom  of  disease. 

Cause.  —  Any  disturbance  that  causes  an  increase  of  heat 
production  or  decrease  of  heat  loss,  usually  the  former. 
Fever  should  be  distinguished  from  overheat ;  the  former  is 
an  increased  body  temperature  due  to  increased  heat  pro- 
duction or  decreased  heat  loss,  and  the  latter  is  an  exces- 
sively high  body  temperature  not  the  result  of  disturbance 
of  heat  production  or  heat  dissipation,  but  caused  by  absorp- 
tion and  accumulation  of  heat  from  without.  The  normal 
temperature  of  horse  is  100  to  101.5  degrees  F.  One  hun- 
dred and  four  degrees  F.  is  called  high,  106  degrees  F.  very 
high.  Normal  temperature  of  adult  cattle  varies  from  100 
to  102.5  degrees;  of  sheep  from  100  to  104  degrees.  Nerv- 
ous system  has  control  of  both  heat  production  and  heat 
loss.  The  body  temperature  is  therefore  a  balance  or  rela- 
tion between  heat  production  and  heat  loss. 

Heat  production.  —  The  source  of  animal  heat  is  the  oxi- 
dation of  body  tissue  and  fuel  materials  in  the  blood  and 
the  consequent  breaking  up  of  complex  chemical  compounds 
into  simpler  ones.  The  principal  heat-furnishing  organs  are 
the  muscles  and  secreting  glands. 

Heat  expenditure.  —  Body  heat  is  •  normally  expended 
about  as  follows:  warming  food  and  drink,  2  per  cent; 
w^arming  air  in  lungs,  5  per  cent;  evaporation  from  lungs, 
8  per  cent;    evaporation  of  moisture  from  the  skin  surface 


PATHOLOGY  69 

and  radiation  from  skin,  So  per  cent.  The  expenditure  of 
heat  in  evaporation  of  moisture  from  the  skin  surface  is  very 
much  hirger  than  either  of  the  others.  On  an  average  there 
is  sufficient  heat  developed  daily  in  a  body  of  a  medium- 
sized  horse  to  raise  4550  gallons  of  water  1.8  degrees  F. 

Symptoms  of  fever.  —  (a)  Elevation  of  temperature ; 
(6)  dry,  hot  skin  (not  always  present);  (c)  pulse  and  respi- 
ration quickened  (normal  pulse  of  horse,  36  to  45;  normal 
respiration  8  to  14  per  minute) ;  ((/)  scanty  urine ;  {e)  loss  of 
flesh. 

Kinds  of  fever.  —  Classified  according  to  course  are : 
(a)  continuous,  with  but  slight  variation;  (6)  remittent, 
varies  greatly  during  the  day,  but  does  not  get  down  to 
normal;  (c)  intermittent,  in  which  the  temperature  varies 
at  different  portions  of  the  day  and  reaches  normal  at  a 
certain  time  each  day;  (d)  relapsing,  fever  comes  at  certain 
intervals,  with  a  period  of  one  or  more  days  of  normal 
temperature  between. 

Stages  of  fever.  —  (a)  The  initial,  or  beginning;  (b)  the 
acme  or  highest  point;  (c)  decline.  The  initial  stage  may 
be  either  short  or  long,  according  to  the  patient  and  disease. 
The  decline  may  be  slow  or  rapid. 

Results.  — -  (a)  Emaciation,  or  general  atrophy,  more  or 
less  severe,  according  to  the  duration  and  height  of  the 
fever,  and  caused  by  continued  unusual  oxidation  of  body 
tissues;  (b)  death  may  occur;  or  (c)  recover3^  Death  may 
occur  suddenly,  or  the  final  changes  nmy  occur  gradually. 
The  recovery  may  be  partial  or  complete,  slow  or  rapid, 
depending  on:  the  nature  of  the  disease  of  which  the  fever 
is  a  symptom  or  condition;  the  native  vigor  or  vital  con- 
stitution of  the  patient;  and  the  conditions  under  which  the 
patient  is  kept  and  under  which  the  disease  runs  its  course. 


LECTURE  XV 

PATHOLOGY — Co  ntinued 

Hemorrhage  is  the  escape  of  blood  from  its  natural 
channels. 

Causes.  —  (1)  Injury  to  the  vessel  walls,  as  when  cut  or 
torn ;  (2)  diseases  of  the  vessel  walls,  e.g.  fatty  or  calcareous 
degeneration;  (3)  excessive  blood  pressure  inside  the  vessel, 
as  in  hypertrophy  of  the  heart  with  excessive  strength  and 
activity,  resulting  in  rupture  of  the  vessels;  (4)  change  in 
the  quality  of  the  blood  with  weakness  in  the  vessel  walls. 

Dropsy  is  any  abnormal  collection  of  serous  fluid  in  any 
cavity  or  tissue  of  the  body.  This  may  occur  in  the  ab- 
dominal cavity,  in  the  chest  cavity,  ventricles  of  the  brain, 
or  in  loose  tissues  under  the  skin.  Of  those  places  outside 
the  large  cavities,  the  most  common  are  the  limbs  and  lower 
portions  of  abdomen.  Dropsical  fluid  is  usually  of  pale 
straw  color,  nearly  neutral  in  chemical  reaction,  and  slightly 
heavier  than  water. 

Cause  of  dropsy.  —  (1)  Any  local  increase  of  blood  pres- 
sure ;  (2)  any  interference  with  flow  of  blood  in  the  veins ; 
(3)  obstruction  in  capillaries,  which  is  quite  common  in 
diseases  of  the  liver  or  kidneys. 

Dropsy  may  be  either  general  or  local. 

General  dropsy  may  affect  the  subcutaneous  connective 
tissue  over  a  large  area,  and  any  of  the  serous  body  cavities. 
It  may  be  due  to  conditions  associated  with  anaemia,  heart 
trouble,  or  kidney  disease. 

Local  dropsy  is  limited  to  some  one  organ  or  cavity,  and 
may  be  due  to  local  mechanical  obstruction  in  the  veins  or 
lymphatic  vessels. 

Hypertrophy  is  any  enlargement  of  any  part  or  organ  of 
the  body.     It  may  be  due  to  either  an  increase  in  the  num- 

70 


PATHOLOGY  71 

ber  of  elements,  or  an  increase  in  the  size  of  existing  elements, 
or  to  a  combination  of  two  conditions.  Hypertrophy  may 
be  either  physiological,  healthy,  or  pathological,  diseased. 

Physiological  hypertrophy  is  illustrated  in  the  blacksmith's 
arm,  where  there  is  enlargement  of  muscles,  due  to  an  in- 
creased exercise  and  therefore  increased  nutrition  to  the 
muscles.  If  one  kidney  be  removed,  the  other  enlarges  to 
compensate. 

Pathological  hypertrophy  is  illustrated  in  "  elephant  leg  " 
of  horses,  a  condition  in  which  the  connective  tissue  of  the 
skin  and  underlying  parts  increases  in  quantity,  resulting 
in  enlargement. 

In  any  hypertrophy  the  newly  formed  elements  are  more 

^__^Hrtarly  like  the  normal  when  the  circulation  is  most  vigorous. 

^^ca^^y  Atrophy  is  the  opposite   of  hypertrophy  and  is   charac- 

(^  ^fcJ:erized  by  decrease  in  bulk  and  weight,   as,   for  instance^ 

7^    sweeny  of  the  shoulder  muscles  in  horses.     Atrophy  may  be 

^^         general  or  local,  and  the  decrease  in  size  may  be  due  either 

'^'^*^   to  decrease  in  size  or  number,  or  to  decrease  both  in  size  and 

number,  of  the  elements. 

Local  atrophy  may  be  caused  by:  (1)  decreased  amount 
of  blood  and  decreased  nutrition ;  (2)  nerve  disturbance 
which  sometimes  results  in  very  rapid  atrophy;  (3)  inflam- 
mation; (4)  excessive  activity  and  exhaustion  of  the  tissue 
elements;    (5)  continuous  pressure. 

General  atrophy  may  be  caused  by  lack  of  nutrition  or 
excessive  consumption  and  wastages  of  the  soft  tissues, 
especially  the  fats  which  are  first  taken;  e.g.  in  typhoid 
fever  in  the  human,  or  influenza  in  the  horse.  In  this  sense 
general  atrophy  is  synonymous  with  emaciation. 

Degenerations  and  infiltrations  are  characterized  by 
changes  in  the  quality  of  a  tissue;  the  bulk  may  or  may 
not  remain  the  same.  When  tissue  degenerates,  cheaper 
material  is  deposited  in  and  actually  becomes  a  part  of  the 
tissue.  This  is  degeneration.  When  infiltration  occurs,  the 
lower  grade  tissue  is  deposited  in  the  cells  and  between  the 
fibers  or  other  tissue  elements.     The  proper  elements  may 


72  VETERINARY   STUDIES 

then  shrink.  The  affected  organ  loses  in  usefulness  in  either 
case. 

Fatty  degeneration  is  characterized  by  the  formation  of 
fatty  matter  in  the  tissue  elements,  and  is  especially  com- 
mon in  muscular  and  glandular  tissue. 

Fatty  infiltration  is  characterized  by  a  deposit  of  fatty 
matter  between  the  tissue  elements  and  later  into  the  tissue 
cells.  Either  may  be  caused  by  (1)  deficiency  of  blood  and 
consequent  imperfect  nutrition;  (2)  inflammation;  (3)  high 
fever;    (4)  poisons,  like  phosphorus,  arsenic,  antimony,  etc. 

Calcareous  degeneration  and  infiltration  are  marked  by  de- 
posit of  lime  salts  into  or  between  the  tissue  elements,  and 
may  be  caused  by  anything  that  results  in  imperfect  nutri- 
tion and  lessened  vitality.  These  conditions  occur  more 
frequently  in  the  tissues  of  older  people  or  animals.  The 
muscular  coat  of  the  arteries  sometimes  becomes  calcified 
and  brittle  in  old  people  and  may  even  break  under  some 
unusual  strain. 

There  are  various  other  degenerations  and  infiltrations 
besides  these  two  named;  but  in  each  case  there  occurs  the 
deposit  of  some  inferior  tissue  into  or  between  the  proper 
elements  of  the  organ. 

Collapse.  —  The  symptoms  are:  temperature  below  nor- 
mal; surface  of  body  cold;  respirations  very  shallow  and 
slow;    pulse  feeble  and  very  slow  or  very  fast. 

Collapse  may  be  the  result  of  (a)  a  very  high  fever, 
(6)  poison,  (c)  suppression  of  secretion  or  excretion,  (d)  rup- 
ture of  internal  organs,  (e)  excessive  hemorrhages,  (/)  de- 
composition of  the  blood. 

Syncope  is  suspension  of  heart  action.  It  is  more  sudden 
and  the  symptoms  are  more  brief  than  in  collapse. 

Death  is  permanent  arrest  of  all  functions.  It  begins  at 
heart,  lungs,  or  brain.  Heart  failure  (syncope)  is  very  sud- 
den. Lung  failure  results  in  suffocation  or  asphyxia. 
Brain  failures  develop  slow  symptoms,  stupor  being  present. 
When  death  occurs  because  the  blood  is  altered,  the  heart 
first  ceases  action. 


LECTURE  XVI 
WOUNDS 

Definition.  —  A  sudden  break  in  the  continuity  of  a  tissue, 
caused  by  external  violence. 

Healing.  —  All  wounds  heal  by  the  production  of  new  cells 
and  new  intercellular  substance  formed  from  preexisting 
tissue  cells.  The  embryonic  cells  change  later  into  mature 
cells  like  those  of  the  adjacent  tissue.  Complete  union  im- 
plies a  restoration  of  circulation  and  nutrition.  This  again 
implies  new  blood  vessels  for  the  new  tissue. 

Union  by  primary  intention.  — The  essentials  of  this 
mode  are  rapid  union  and  absence  of  germs  and  pus.  All 
wounds  which  heal  without  suppuration  heal  in  this  way. 
There  is  always  some  new  tissue  formed,  although  it  may 
not  be  visible. 

By  granulation.  —  This  is  observed  in  the  healing  of  open 
wounds,  and  consists  of  the  formation  of  new  tissue  by  the 
multiplication  of  preexisting  cells.  This  new  tissue  fills  the 
space  between  the  wound  margins  and  replaces  the  tissue 
that  was  destroyed. 

Newly  formed  tissue  in  open  wounds  is  composed  of  cap- 
illaries, embyronic  connective  tissue  cells,  and  leucocytes. 
If  the  wound  is  free  from  germs  and  the  surfaces  are  kept 
at  rest  and  close  together,  healing  is  very  rapid  and  but 
little  new  tissue  needed.  Where  there  is  loss  of  much  tissue, 
it  ma}^  be  impossible  to  bring  the  surfaces  together  and  a 
great  deal  of  new  tissue  is  needed.  Connective  tissue  cells 
only  develop  from  preexisting  connective  tissue  cells,  — 
epithelial  from  epithelial,  bony  from  bony,  etc. 

When  wounds  are  covered  with  granulations,  each  little 

73 


74  VETERINARY   STUDIES 

elevation  contains  a  loop  or  network  of  new  blood  vessels. 
The  white  blood  corpuscles  emigrate  through  the  new  blood 
vessels  and  form  part  of  the  pus  when  this  is  present. 
Healthy  granulations  are  small,  firm,  pink  in  color,  and  the 
surface  is  slightly  moistened  with  a  colorless  fluid.  In  this 
case  the  wound  heals  rapidly  and  usually  leaves  a  small 
scar. 

Proud  flesh  is  merely  a  mass  of  profuse  granulations,  and 
indicates  either  a  lack  of  vitality  or  else  external  irritation. 
The  latter  is  usually  from  germs. 

Development  of  new  blood  vessels.  —  This  is  from  vessels 
that  previously  existed  in  the  injured  tissue.  The  growth 
of  new  l)lood  vessels  and  new  tissue  for  union  start  together 
and  continue  until  enough  granulation  tissue  has  been  de- 
veloped to  fill  the  wound  gap.  The  new  vessels  start  by 
budding  from  capillaries  near  the  surface,  and  are  always 
short.  These  buds  project  farther  and  farther  and  gradu- 
ally change  into  threads.  These  threads  gradually  hollow 
into  tubes,  beginning  at  the  end  near  the  old  capillary.  It 
happens  frequently  that  the  ends  of  two  neighboring  pro- 
jections meet  and  unite  to  form  an  arch.  As  this  becomes 
hollowed  out  a  capillary  loop  is  formed.  When  this  de- 
velopment is  complete,  then  new  blood  vessels  may  start 
from  this  one  and  perhaps  develop  another  arch.  The 
thread-like  projections  are  probably  hollowed  out  by  the 
blood  current  in  the  parent  vessel. 

Granulation  tissue  is  more  vascular  than  normal  tissue. 
Useless  vessels  are  finally  constricted  and  then  obliter- 
ated. 

Inflammation  in  wounds  is  due  to  foreign  material ;  for 
instance,  dead  tissue  or  foreign  bodies,  but  more  commonly 
by  germs  which  by  multiplication  give  rise  to  wound  infec- 
tion and  inflammation. 

Osseous  tissue.  —  Wounds  in  bone  tissue  heal  like  those 
in  other  tissues,  the  wound  surface  being  covered  with  granu- 
lations. The  development  of  new  tissue  is  from  the  perios- 
teum and  from  the  marrow  at  the  place  of  injury.     At  the 


WOUNDS  75 

end  of  a  few  weeks,  the  ends  are  united  by  a  spongy  mass 
beneath  the  periosteum  and  in  the  medullary  canal.  This 
mass  gradually  becomes  organized.  This  is  called  a  callu? 
and  later  is  partly  removed. 

Cartilage  has  very  little  power  of  repair.  Loss  of  cartilage 
is  generally  repaired  by  fibrous  connective  tissue. 

Nerve  tissue.  —  After  a  nerve  is  cut,  the  severed  portion 
degenerates.  New  axis  cylinders  come  down  from  the 
stump  and  grow  through  or  along  old  sheaths  of  the  severed 
portion.  It  is  doubtful  whether  primary  union  ever  takes 
place.  Quick  return  of  sensibility  does  not  necessarily  imply 
restoration  of  the  injured  fibers.  The  newly  grown  axis 
cylinders  receive  sheaths  which  probably  grow  from  nerve 
cells  lying  within  the  old  sheaths.  Whether  the  new  fibers 
ever  reach  the  old  terminals  depends  upon  the  amount  of 
intervening  tissue  and  the  density  of  it.  The  limit  of  growth 
is  placed  at  from  one  to  two  inches. 

The  new  tissue.  —  In  certain  tissues,  extensive  injuries 
may  be  repaired  by  tissue  which  completely  resembles  the 
original.  This  is  true  of  tendons  and  bones.  Muscular 
tissue  seems  to  have  much  less  ability  to  repair  extensive 
injuries.  Scar  tissue  contracts  for  a  long  time  after  heal- 
ing is  complete.  The  scar  is  large  when  there  has  been 
more  granulation  tissue  than  needed  or  where  an  extensive 
removal  of  tissue  necessitates  a  great  amount  of  scar  tissue. 
Scar  tissue  in  this  case  is  endowed  with  low  vitality,  and  is 
poorly  nourished. 

How  skin  recovers  a  surface.  —  A  wound  is  not  entirely 
healed  until  it  is  recovered.  This  takes  place  by  develop- 
ment of  new  epithelial  cells  from  those  of  the  skin.  These 
new  epithelial  cells  gradually  form  new  skin  which  grows 
from  the  margin.  It  covers  the  granulations  loosely  at 
first,  but  later  unites  firmly  to  them.  New  epithelial  cells 
have  the  power  of  amoeboid  movement.  They  may  become 
detached  from  the  margin  and  set  up  a  new  covering  center 
elsewhere  on  the  wound  surface.  Restoration  of  the  skin 
surfaces,  and  for  that  matter  the  entire  healing,  is  favored 


76  VETERINARY  STUDIES 

by  surgical  cleanliness,  and  is  hindered  by  irritating   medi- 
cines, and  by  rubbing  sponges,  etc.,  over  the  surface. 

An  exception  should  be  noted,  viz.  that  when  healing  has 
ceased  in  case  of  an  old  sore,  with  the  surface  not  yet  covered 
by  skin,  healing  may  sometimes  be  given  a  vigorous  start  by 
a  blister. 


LECTURE  XVII 

WOUNDS  —  Continued 

The  most  common  wounds  which  affect  stock  are  those 
caused  by  barbed  wires,  plows,  harrows,  etc.,  and  are  gener- 
ally large  and  badly  torn.  The  farmer  rarely  has  to  deal 
with  a  nice  clean  wound  that  can  unite  smoothly  and  heal 
rapidly. 

Bad  treatment.  —  Nearly  every  farmer  has  some  special 
preparation  which  he  thinks  of  great  value  in  the  treatment 
of  wounds.  Most  of  these  preparations  are  seriously  in- 
jurious, and  greatly  retard  healing.  Various  preparations 
of  turpentine,  alcohol,  vinegar,  carbolic  acid,  irritating  oils, 
and  even  the  mineral  acids  are  frequently  used  in  the  treat- 
ment of  these  wounds,  and  then,  because  the  patient  recovers 
in  spite  of  barbarous  treatment,  people  erroneously  con- 
clude that  the  medicine  cured. 

Bleeding.  —  This  can  usually  be  checked  quite  easily.  If 
the  blood  comes  from  a  large  number  of  small  vessels,  the 
hemorrhage  can  be  checked  and  finally  stopped  by  means 
•of  ice,  by  very  cold  or  very  warm  water,  or  the  wound  may 
be  packed  with  clean  cotton  or  oakum  and  tightly  ban- 
daged. In  case  a  large  blood  vessel  is  severed,  it  may  be 
better  to  draw  the  end  out  and  tie  a  strong  thread  around 
it.  The  artery  may  be  secured  by  means  of  small  forceps 
or  even  with  a  hook  made  by  bending  a  pin  or  piece  of  wire. 

In  some  cases  hemorrhage  can  be  easily  controlled  by  a 
tight  bandage  placed  above  or  below  the  wound.  If  the 
blood  flows  in  a  steady  stream,  the  bandage  should  be  on 
the  side  farthest  from  the  heart.  If  it  flows  in  jets,  th 
bandage  should  be  tied  between  the  wound  and  the  heart 

Sewing.  —  Comparatively  few  wounds  are  materially  bene- 

77 


78 


VETERINARY   STUDIES 


fited  by  sewing,  bandaging,  or  washing  except  in  profes- 
sional hands.  If  the  wound  is  made  lengthwise  of  the  muscle, 
there  may  be  considerable  advantage  in  holding  the  sides 
together  by  sewing.  No  special  form  of  needle  or  thread  is 
necessary  except  that  both  should  be  clean,  and  the  latter 
should  be  of  reasonable  size.  A  darning  needle  and  ordinary 
white  cotton  thread  or  twine  will  do  very  well  in  an  emer- 
gency. But  if  the  wound  is  made  across  the  muscle  and 
gapes  widely,  it  is  usually  unwise  to  sew,  for  the  sutures  will 
cut  out  in  a  few  days  and  make  the  scar  much  worse  than 
if  it  had  been  left  alone. 

Bandaging.  —  Occasionally  a  wound  is  such  that  the  edges 
can  be  held  together  by  means  of  bandages.     If  this  can  be 

done,  there  may  be  consider- 
able advantage  in  so  doing, 
l)ut  these  wounds  are  rare. 
Bandages  must  be  .changed 
frequently  and  the  wound 
kept  clean. 

Washing.  —  Few  of  these 
wounds  are  benefited  by 
washing  or  other  "home'^ 
treatment.  If  a  wound  is 
such  that  pus  can  drain 
from  it  freely  and  as  rapidly 
as  formed,  there  is  little  to 
l^e  gained  by  washing.  If 
on  the  contrary  there  are 
deep  recesses  or  pockets 
from  which  the  pus  cannot 
drain,  then  the  wound  must 
be  so  altered  that  these 
pockets  will  drain  or  else  they  must  be  washed  out ;  other- 
wise the  pus  may  burrow  deeper. 

Carbolic  acid  is  commonly  used  so  dilute  that  it  is  with- 
out effect.  When  used  strong  enough  to  be  distinctly  an- 
tiseptic, it  becomes   injurious   to   the    wound  surface.     If 


Fig.  31. —  Badly  Treated  Wire 
Wound.    (M.H.R.) 


WOUNDS  '  79 

washing  is  necessary,  use  warm  water  containing  a  trace  of 
salt,  just  enough  salt  so  that  it  can  be  tasted.  This  is 
efficient  and  not  injurious.  In  any  case  the  wound  surface 
must  not  be  rubbed  over  during  the  process  of  washing. 

Dry  treatment.  —  Sometimes  quicker  and  better  results 
can  be  obtained  by  the  use  of  nonirritating  and  astringent 
antiseptic  powder;  for  instance,  the  following:  iodoform, 
boracic  acid,  and  tannic  acid,  in  equal  parts.  This  may  be 
dusted  over  the  surface  once  daily  to  produce  an  artificial 
scab.  If  the  wound  is  suppurating  freely,  it  may  be  ad- 
visable to  irrigate  its  surface  freely  for  fifteen  minutes  with 
3  per  cent  creolin,  or  3  per  cent  lysol,  or  5  per  cent  carbohc 
acid  in  water  before  applying  the  powder.  Use  the  powder 
freely.  In  some  cases  it  is  advisable  to  make  a  second  ap- 
plication of  the  powder  fifteen  minutes  after  the  first. 

If  the  suppuration  is  checked  and  the  surface  scabs  over, 
then  use  the  powder  only.  If  free  suppuration  begins 
again,    repeat    the    antiseptic    irrigation,    and    powder   as 

before. 

Maggots.  —  This  trouble  can  usually  be  prevented  in  small 
wounds  by  smearing  the  following  mixture  around  the 
border:  turpentine  1  part,  tar  3  parts,  fish  oil  2  parts.  If 
a  wound  becomes  infested  with  maggots,  use  chloroform. 
This  may  be  applied  either  by  spraying  or  by  throwing  it  in 
small  drops  from  a  sponge. 

Suggestions.  —  Wounds  frequently  heal  more  rapidly  and 
perfectly  in  open  air  than  in  the  stable,  because  there  is 
more  ammonia  in  the  air  of  the  stable,  and  injurious  germs 
are  more  abundant.  Heahng  of  some  wounds  is  retarded 
by  exercise,  and  such  patients  should  be  kept  in  the  stable. 

Rest  from  motion  for  the  injured  parts  is  generally  favor- 
able for  wound  heahng. 

In  dressing  a  recent  wound  all  dirt  and  foreign  material, 
and  usually  all  clots  of  blood,  should  be  carefully  removed. 
This  may  be  done  with  a  mild  antiseptic  solution  used 
warm;  e.g.  3  per  cent  carbohc  acid  or  3  per  cent  lysol. 
Ordinary  cotton,  preferably  surgeon's  cotton,  will  do  very 


80  VETERINARY   STUDIES 

nicely,  but  there  should  be  as  little  rubbing  as  possible.  It  is 
frequently  better  to  use  a  syringe  than  sponge  or  cotton. 

The  healing  wound.  —  Healing  wounds  vary  greatly  in 
appearance.  The  wound  that  is  called  "  healthy  "  or  that 
is  doing  well  has  been  described  under  Healing  by  Granu- 
lation. Wounds  that  are  "  unhealthy  "  or  not  doing  well 
may  be  either  pale,  or  dark  with  considerable  heat,  or  show 
large  soft  granulations  (proud  flesh).  When  repair  has  ap- 
parently ceased  and  there  is  no  progress  toward  healing,  we 
say  the  wound  is  indolent. 

For  indolent  wounds  a  good  blister  will  frequently  start 
active  healing.  The  so-called  proud  flesh  or  bad  granula- 
tion may  be  removed  from  "  unhealthy  "  wounds  by  the 
knife  or  actual  cautery.  Inflamed  wounds  should  be  treated 
with  long-continued  applications  of  warm  water,  or  warm 
antiseptic  poultices. 

Punctured  wounds  are  especially  dangerous  on  account 
of  tetanus  and  deep  formation  of  pus  with  absorption  of 
septic  poison.  These  deep  wounds  may  be  treated  with 
hydrogen  peroxide  or  carbolic  acid  deeply  injected.  In 
some  cases  they  may  be  opened  freely  and  exposed  to  air, 
which  greatly  reduces  the  danger. 


LECTURE  XVIII 

CAUSES  AND   PREVENTION   OF   DISEASE 

CONTAGIUM 

Definition.  —  Living  germs  which  constitute  the  specific 
and  primary  cause  of  certain  diseases  and  which  may  be 
transmitted  from  one  animal  to  another.  An  outbreak  of 
disease  may  be  enzootic  (local),  or  epizootic  (widely  spread). 

Description.  —  Bacteria  are  vegetable  microorganisms. 
Each  individual  consists  of  a  single  cell.  They  are  of 
almost  infinite  number  of  species  and  varieties,  and  are 
present  in  the  atmosphere  in  particles  of  room  dust,  in 
drinking  water,  in  the  soil,  and,  in  fact,  almost  everywhere 
in  great  abundance. 

Size.  —  They  are  extremely  small,  requiring  the  highest 
powers  of  the  microscope  to  make  them  distinctly  visible. 
It  i§-d^5^5^^1  thiit  iiAillions  may  live  comfortably  in  a  single 
drop  of  fluid.  -An  aivlgrage  bacillus  is  from  os^oo"  ^o  25000 
of  an  inch  long. 

Motion.  —  Some  of  these  little  plants  have  positive  mo- 
tility, others  have  no  true  motility;  many  of  them  have  a 
pecuhar  dancing  motion  (Brownian  motion). 

Nutiition.  —  Bacteria  use  for  their  food  the  chemical 
elements,  oxygen,  nitrogen,  carbon,  hydrogen,  phosphorus, 
and  sulphur.  Like  higher  beings,  they  vary  in  their  Hkes; 
and  dislikes.  What  is  wholesome  for  one  may  be  very  in- 
•jurious  to  another.  Each  species  has  its  certain  conditions, 
of  moisture,  temperature,  and  chemical  reaction  which  are 
most  favorable. 

Reproduction.  — T\\e^Q  little  beings  reproduce  by  fission 
and  by  spore  formation.     If  the  fission  is  incomplete,  they 

81 


82  VETERINARY  STUDIES 

remain  in  chains.  The  spore  is  the  hardy  resistant  form 
and  corresponds  imperfectly  to  seed  formation  of  higher 
plants.  It  is  estimated  that  one  individual  may  increase 
to  1,170,570  in  10  hours. 

Plagues  in  history.  —  Throughout  all  the  pages  of  history, 
we  have  records  of  fearful  plagues  among  men  and  animals. 
About  1500  years  before  Christ  a  great  plague  of  murrain 
swept  through  Egypt  and  made  a  great  slaughter  of  cattle. 
We  are  told  concerning  the  plague  at  Athens,  430  B.C.,  that 
dead  men,  dead  animals,  and  dead  birds  lay  in  piles  on  the 
streets,  and  even  the  temple  floors  were  covered  with  bodies. 

Plagues  recur  at  intervals  through  the  history  of  the  city 
of  Rome.  About  453  B.C.  an  outbreak,  possibly  anthrax, 
destroyed  nearly  one  half  the  population  of  Rome,  as  well 
as  their  cattle,  and  the  outbreak  spread  extensively  through 
what  is  now  Italy.  A  widespread  outbreak  of  anthrax  oc- 
curred in  France  and  Belgium,  591  a.d.  This  same  disease 
is  said  to  have  spread  all  over  Europe  again  about  1750. 
Cattle  plague  was  carried  into  England  in  1745,  and  the  loss 
was  very  heavy.  This  outbreak  lasted  for  several  years  in 
various  parts  of  Europe,  and  the  loss  cannot  be  estimated. 
Tuberculosis  has  long  been  prevalent.  These  are  all  con- 
tagious diseases  and  are  caused  by  bacteria.  The  above 
are  but  isolated  examples  of  an  indefinite  number  of  out- 
breaks of  various  diseases  which  have  appeared  among 
domestic  animals. 

How  scattered.  —  Germs  of  diseases  are  scattered  by  a 
very  great  many  agencies ;  for  instance,  the  germs  of  hog 
cholera  are  disseminated  by  means  of  the  diseased  carcasses, 
hog  racks,  stock  cars,  and  they  may  be  easily  transferred 
by  the  shoes  or  clothing  of  persons  who  walk  through  an 
infected  yard.  Dogs  undoubtedly  serve  to  scatter  this  dis- 
ease over  wide  areas,  and  possibly  birds.  It  is  possible,  also,  * 
for  the  germs  to  be  scattered  upon  particles  of  dust  and 
litter  in  high  winds.  Watering  troughs,  tanks,  ponds,  and 
sluggish  streams  are  all  common  sources  for  spreading  in- 
fectious diseases. 


CAUSES  AND  PREVENTION  OF  DISEASE  83 

Development  of  outbreaks.  —  It  seems  to  be  true  of  several, 
and  possibly  so  of  a  great  many,  diseases,  that  the  germs 
may  be  present  with  the  animal  or  his  surroundings  but 
not  virulent  enough  to  produce  disease.  Under  favorable 
conditions  and  perhaps  after  passing  through  the  bodies  of 
several  susceptible  animals  in  succession  the}'  may  increase 
in  virulence  sufRcienth'  to  produce  disease. 

Some  of  the  germs  producing  diseases  of  domestic  animals 

are  believed  to  live  for  very  long  periods  of  time  and  even 

vegetate     outside    the    animal    ^^^-^.-cac 
1    J  -11  -^u-      •  COCGACEAE- 

body,  possibly  upon  or  witmn 

the    tissues   of   plants.      Some    _^_  ^  .  ^^^,.  .  ^.. .  ^ 
germs,  especially  m  the  resist- 
ing   or  spore   stage,    may   Uve    ^        ^piRiLLACtAt  TYf>&5 
for  very  long  periods  of  time,      ^^"^ 
and    under    very    unfavorable     ^ '^^^^^^^-'^-^^ 
conditions  retain  virulence;  for  '^'''-  32.— Gexeral  Groups  of  Bac- 

TERL\.     Diagrammatic.     (_M.H.R.) 

example,  the  spores  or  anthrax. 

Some  outbreaks  of  infectious  diseases  appear  very  sud- 
denly, with  the  most  virulent  and  rapidly  fatal  cases  ap- 
pearing earliest  in  the  outbreak.  The  outbreak  then  grad- 
ually loses  virulence,  the  last  cases  being  of  a  decidedly 
chronic  nature,  and  some  of  them  possibly  recovering.  This 
is  frequently  illustrated  in  hog  cholera.  It  is  possible,  how- 
ever, that,  before  the  virulent  form  was  noticed,  there 
may  have  been  a  series  of  very  mild  cases,  the  animals  not 
being  appreciably  sick;  but  the  germs  in  passing  through 
susceptible  bodies  greatly  increased  in  virulence  until  they 
were  able  to  produce  a  rapidly  fatal  type  of  the  disease. 

Body  entrance.  —  Germs  gain  entrance  through  the  res- 
piratory organs  with  the  inspired  air;  through  the  digestive 
organs,  through  cuts  or  scratches  in  the  skin  and  mucous 
membranes ;  and  rarely  infection  occurs  before  birth. 

Method  of  injury.  —  Germs  cause  injury  and  disease  in  at 
least  two  different  ways :  First,  by  rapid  multiplication  and 
mechanical  presence  in  inconceivable  numbers.  As  an  ex- 
ample of  disease  caused  by  germs  in  this  way,  at  least  partly 


84  VETERINARY   STUDIES 

by  mechanical  presence,  we  have  actinomycosis  (himpy 
jaw).  Second,  germs  which  by  chemical  action  may  pro- 
duce intensely  poisonous  substances  in  the  blood  and  body 
tissues.  As  an  example  of  this  we  have  tetanus  and  diph- 
theria. 

How  disposed  of  in  nature.  —  Nature  disposes  of  disease 
germs  in  a  variety  of  ways,  principally  by  oxidation,  by  the 
devitalizing  effect  of  sunlight,  and  they  are  scattered  over 
wide  areas  and  enormously  diluted  by  the  wind  and  water. 

Classification.  —  Germs  are  classified  into  general  families 
according  to  form,  multiplication,  presence  or  absence  of 
sheath,  and  whether  motile  or  not.  There  are  at  least  three 
general  family  types  of  bacteria :  — 

First,  CoccacecE.  —  These  are  spherical.  A  great  many 
of  the  most  common  diseases  are  caused  by  germs  which 
belong  to  this  general  family.  For  instance,  erysipelas  and 
various  types  of  blood  poisoning,  abscesses,  and  sloughing. 

Second,  BacteriacecB.  —  These  are  short,  rod-shaped  germs. 
Among  the  common  diseases  of  live  stock  which  are  caused 
by  germs  belonging  to  this  general  family,  there  may  be 
given  as  illustrations,  tuberculosis,  glanders,  tetanus  (lock- 
jaw), and  hemorrhagic  septicaemia. 

Third,  Spirillacece.  —  The  individuals  are  rod-shaped, 
curved,  or  spiral  and  may  be  very  short  or  very  long.  The 
specific  cause  of  Asiatic  fever  (human)  belongs  in  this 
general  group. 

Practical  suggestions.  —  The  student  should  bear  clearly 
in  mind  tliat  bacteria  or  germs  usually  require  very  favor- 
able conditions  for  existence,  and  especially  for  retaining 
disease-producing  power.  Make  conditions  unfavorable  for 
them  by  vigorous  health,  by  high  resisting  power  on  the 
part  of  the  animal,  and  by  sunshine  and  ventilation. 

Bear  in  mind  that  germs  are  actual  substances,  tiny 
particles  of  living  matter,  and  may  be  carried  about  in  any 
way  that  very  fine  particles  of  dust  may  be  scattered. 

The  beginning  of  an  outbreak  may  come  in  two  ways: 
first,  by  recent  introduction  of  germs,  e.g.  anthrax  in  north- 


CAUSES  AND  PREVENTION  OF  DISEASE  85 

em  states.  Or,  second,  an  outbreak  of  infectious  disease 
may  be  caused  by  increased  virulence  in  case  of  germs  al- 
ready present,  but  not  previously  capable  of  producing- 
disease.  This  increase  of  virulence  may  be  due  to  sur- 
rounding conditions  especially  favorable  to  germ  life.  This 
probably  occurs,  e.g.  in  diphtheria  and  pneumonia. 

Apparently  it  makes  great  difference  in  many  diseases 
as  to  the  number  of  germs  taken  into  the  body,  —  hence  the 
necessit}^  of  sunshine  to  reduce  virulence  and  destroy  germs 
and  of  ventilation  to  carry  as  many  of  them  as  possible  out 
into  the  open  air. 

Bearing  in  mind  now  what  has  been  said  of  germs,  it  is 
easy  to  see  how  glanders  with  infection  left  in  feed  boxes 
or  water  pails  may  be  spread  from  horse  to  horse;  how 
hog  cholera  with  infection,  especially  in  the  manure,  may  be 
easily  and  rapidly  spread;  or  how  lumpy  jaw  may  be  spread 
with  its  germs  in  the  pus  scattered  from  abscesses. 


LECTURE  XIX 
CAUSES   AND   PREVENTION   OF   DISEASE 
DISINFECTION 

Purpose.  —  In  veterinary  practice,  disinfection  is  intended 
to  check  the  spread  of  infectious  diseases,  and  to  protect  from 
further  infection  animals  which  may  be  already  diseased. 

Sources  of  infection.  —  In  any  process  of  disinfection  it  is 
important  to  know  something  concerning  the  nature  of  the 
infecting  germ,  and  the  sources  from  which  it  comes.  Germs 
of  diseases  are  spread  in  a  great  variety  of  ways ;  for  in- 
stance, with  the  body  fluids  of  sick  animals,  by  soiled  water 
or  food,  or  by  any  contaminated  matter.  Air  may  be  con- 
taminated from  the  skin  and  lungs  of  diseased  animals. 
The  soil  may  be  contaminated  by  the  burial  of  diseased  ani- 
mals or  by  the  deposit  of  any  infectious  material  upon  the 
surface.  In  any  such  case,  germs  may  be  washed  to  ponds, 
sluggish  streams,  or  shallow  wells,  thus  contaminating  the 
water.  Hides,  offal,  and  even  the  hair  of  a  diseased  animal 
may  be  a  source  of  spreading  disease. 

Must  be  thorough.  —  Disinfection  is  not  reliable  and  should 
not  be  depended  upon  unless  done  most  thoroughly.  A 
small  yard  may  be  disinfected  by  having  straw  burned  over 
it,  or  the  earth  may  be  removed  to  a  depth  of  at  least  six 
inches  and  replaced  with  fresh  earth.  Paved  flooring  may  be 
disinfected  by  burning  over  it  any  inflammable  material. 
Cracks  should  be  disinfected  by  free  use  of  corrosive  subli- 
mate solution.  Food  which  may  have  been  contaminated 
should  ordinarily  be  destroyed,  but  in  some  cases  such 
food  may  be  given   to   nonsusceptible   animals.     Drinking 


CAUSES  AXD   PREVEXTIOX   OF   DISEASE  87 

places  should  be  disinfected,  also  currycombs,  brushes,  and 
everji:hing  of  that  sort. 

Attendants.  —  Attendants  for  sick  animals  should  be  very 
careful  about  their  clothing,  particularly  trousers  and  shoes. 
It  is  well  to  use  special  overalls  and  overshoes,  which  should 
be  left  at  the  infected  stall  or  building. 

Dogs,  rats,  and  any  of  the  smaller  animals  which  are  liable 
to  convey  the  disease  should  be  guarded  against. 

■  How  to  bum  a  carcass."*  —  Dig  a  cross-shaped  trench 
about  12  inches  deep  in  the  center,  becoming  shallow  toward 
the  edges;  about  seven  feet  long  each  way.  The  earth  is 
thrown  in  the  angles;  two  bars  of  iron  are  placed  across  for 
a  bridge,  and  upon  them  the  fuel  is  placed.  The  trunk  of 
the  carcass  is  placed  upon  the  fuel,  then  another  layer  of 
fuel,  then  the  internal  organs  and  limbs  of  the  carcass,  and 
finally  another  layer  of  wood.  The  cross-shaped  trench 
gives  a  draft  —  no  matter  which  way  the  wind  may  be 
blowing. 

DISINFECTANTS 

Alcohol.  —  This  is  considered  unreliable,  not  strong  enough 
in  its  germ-destroying  properties,  but  useful  for  certain  pur- 
poses, particularly  as  an  aid  in  disinfecting  greasy  surfaces. 

Carbolic  acid.  —  Pure  carbolic  acid  is  usually  seen  in  the 
form  of  light-colored  crystals,  sometimes  slightly  red.  As 
sold  in  the  drug  stores  it  is  usually  liquefied  by  the  addition 
of  5  to  8  per  cent  of  water.  It  is  soluble  in  water  up  to 
about  6  per  cent.  This  is  one  of  the  most  commonly  used 
and  most  reliable  disinfectants.  It  is  objectionable  in  being 
quite  poisonous;  but  it  does  not  destroy  clothing  or  corrode 
metals  like  corrosive  subhmate.  The  best  antidote  is  prob- 
ably alcohol  for  internal  poisoning  or  for  external  burns. 
Alcohol  may  be  given  in  large  doses  for  this  purpose.  For 
disinfection,  use  a  5  per  cent  solution. 

Crude  carbolic  acid  was  formerly  a  very  valuable  disin- 

*  Method  recommended  by  Dr.  F.  Smith. 


88  VETERINARY   STUDIES 

fectant,  and  cheap,  but  it  has  fallen  into  discredit  because 
some  of  that  put  on  the  market  in  later  years  has  been 
robbed  of  its  disinfecting  properties  in  the  manufacture  of 
various  proprietary  disinfectants. 

Creolin.  —  This  is  supposed  to  be  a  combination  of  crude 
carbolic  acid  with  soap.  It  is  a  dark  brown,  rather  thick 
liquid,  and  makes  a  milky  emulsion  with  water,  used  in  5 
per  cent  solution. 

Formalin.  —  A  very  important  disinfectant,  either  as  a 
hquid  or  when  vaporized.  It  is  in  the  market  as  a  40  per 
cent  solution  of  formaldehyde  gas.  The  odor  is  very  irri- 
tating and  disagreeable,  resembling  somewhat  chlorine. 
Formalin  is  apparently  more  active  in  the  presence  of 
moisture.  For  use  in  vapor  form,  at  least  20  ounces  per 
1000  cubic  feet  should  be  introduced  rapidly  into  a  tight 
room.     Glycerine  or  borax  should  be  added  in  the  retort. 

Formalin  may  be  vaporized  very  satisfactorily  by  per- 
manganate of  potash  in  powder  or  fine  crystals.  Use  8 
ounces  of  permanganate  and  20  ounces  formalin  for  each 
1000  cubic  feet  of  air  when  the  inside  temperature  is  GO  de- 
grees F.  or  above.  Use  one  fourth  to  one  half  more  of  the 
■disinfectants  for  lower  temperatures.  A  large  flaring  tin 
pail  is  used  for  each  such  mixture,  and  the  permanganate 
should  be  put  in  first. 

Fire.  —  The  most  reliable  disinfectant,  and  the  one  that 
should  be  invariably  used  where  an  article  may  be  destroyed. 

Moist  heat.  —  More  active  and  reliable  than  dry  heat  at 
■same  temperature.  Boiling  for  an  hour  is  probably  suffi- 
cient to  destroy  any  known  disease-producing  germs. 

Corrosive  sublimate.  —  This  is  sold  in  the  form  of  white 
crystals  or  powder.  It  dissolves  in  about  16  parts  of  water, 
and  its  solubility  can  be  increased  by  muratic  acid  or  iodide 
of  potash.  It  is  disinfectant  in  the  proportion  of  1  to  2000, 
about  3j  grains  to  a  pint  of  water,  and  in  even  more  dilute 
solution.  A  convenient  solution  can  be  made  by  dissolv- 
ing it  in  alcohol,  1  to  8,  then  a  teaspoonful  of  this  to  a  quart 
of  water  gives  a  1  to  2000  solution.     Corrosive  sublimate  is 


CAUSES  AND  PREVENTION  OF  DISEASE  89 

dangerously  poisonous;  it  coagulates  albumin,  and  corrodes 
and  destroys  metals. 

Sulphur  is  probably  not  as  efficient  as  is  generally  sup- 
posed. If  a  very  large  quantity  of  sulphur  is  used,  after 
the  surfaces  to  be  disinfected  have  been  moistened  by  steam 
or  otherwise  and  doors  and  windows  kept  tightly  closed  for 
a  long  period  of  time,  then  it  seems  to  have  decided  germ- 
destroying  properties.  There  is  needed  about  10  pounds 
per  1000  cubic  feet  of  air.  This  may  be  easily  burned  by 
the  addition  of  about  three  or  four  ounces  of  alcohol,  the 
whole  being  placed  in  an  iron  kettle,  and  that  in  a  tub  of 
boiling  water,  partly  for  safety  and  partly  for  moisture. 

Sunshine.  —  Destroys  germs.  Whenever  sufficient  time 
may  be  had,  infected  clothing  or  any  article  to  be  disin- 
fected, especially  where  the  infection  is  on  the  surface,  can 
be  rendered  safe  by  long  exposure  to  sunshine. 


LECTURE  XX 
CAUSES  AND   PREVENTION   OF   DISEASE 

HEREDITY 

Definition.  —  The  great  law  of  inheritance  that  ''  Hke 
tends  to  produce  Hke."  This  tendency  may  apply  to  any 
pecuHarity.  Heredity  may  appear  as  a  factor  in  the  cause 
of  disease  when  actual  disease  germs  are  transmitted,  which 
is  rare,  or  when  a  local  weakness  or  general  susceptibility 
appears,  which  is  favorable  to  the  development  of  disease. 
Statistics  are  meager,  but  essential  facts  are  very  plain  as 
to  the  relation  of  heredity  to  many  diseases. 

Theory.  —  The  modern  idea  of  heredity  in  relation  to  dis- 
ease is  that  the  thing  actually  inherited  is  usually  only  a  tend- 
ency or  a  lessened  resistance.  This  may  refer  to  the  white 
corpuscles  and  serum  of  the  blood  as  well  as  to  the  muscle 
and  tendon  or  bone  cells.  This  theory  of  lessened  resistance 
applies  to  such  conditions  as  spavins,  ringbones,  sidel^ones, 
roaring,  and  internal  diseases  alike.  Under  favorable  con- 
ditions the  actual  development  of  disease  may  not  occur. 
A  stallion  with  certain  defects  of  the  eyes  is  apt  to  sire 
colts  with  bad  eyes.  Mares  with  curby  or  spavined  hocks 
are  equally  apt  to  raise  colts  with  bad  hocks.  In  rare  cases 
the  young  is  born  with  the  actual  disease  present. 

In-and-in  breeding.  —  This  tends  in  some  cases  toward 
decrease  of  ph3'sical  vigor,  infertility,  tendency  to  abortion, 
and  various  other  diseases,  especially  when  long  continued 
and  with  unwise  mating. 

AIR 

Air  is  a  very  frequent  source  of  disease.  Its  composition 
in  a  general  way  is:   oxygen  1-5,  nitrogen,  4-5;   more  accu- 

90 


CAUSES  AND   PFEVEXTION   OF  DISEASE  91 

rately,   oxygen  20.97  per  cent,  nitrogen   79   per  cent,   and 
carbon  dioxide  gas  (CO  o)  .03  per  cent. 

Impurities  in  air  are  taken  care,  of  b}'  nature  through 
chffusion,  oxidation,  sunhght,  and  phint  Hfe  activity.  Com- 
mon impurities  in  air  are  carbonic  gas,  ammonia,  germs  of 
very  many  different  kinds;  scales  and  debris  of  epithehum, 
hair,  sputum,  dried  manure,  dried  pus,  and  various  matters 
from  sewer  pipes  and  marshy  grounds. 

Relation  to  disease.  —  Diseases  rehited  to  impure  air  are 
many  and  serious;  e.g.  total  mortality  among  French  cavalry 
horses  was  formerly  as  high  as  18  to  20  per  cent,  but  was 
reduced  by  ventilation  and  better  sanitary  conditions  to  7 
per  cent.  Farcy  in  the  English  cavalry  used  to  be  exceed- 
ingly common,  but  is  now  rare.  In  1857  there  was  a 
serious  outbreak  of  influenza  that  could  not  be  checked  until 
certain  stables  were  cleaned  and  ventilated. 

Horses'  lungs  have  about  289  square  feet  of  air-al)Sorbing 
surface  or  five  times  the  skin  area.  They  may  contain  at 
one  time  1.5  feet  of  air.  Horses  at  rest  may  give  off  6.5 
to  7.5  cubic  feet  of  CO2  every  hour. 

Air  begins  to  get  foul  when  oxygen  is  reduced  to  20.6  per 
cent,  or  taking  another  means  of  estimating,  air  generally 
begins  to  be  foul  when  CO2  goes  above  .05  per  cent;  but  is 
not  necessarily  very  harmful. 

Carbon  dioxide  (CO2)  is  not  poisonous  in  small  quantities 
of  itself,  but  significant  liecause  of  the  poisonous  inorganic 
impurities  with  which  it  may  be  associated.  Common 
statements  that  CO2  at  1  per  cent  is  very  poisonous  or  fatal 
are  nonsense.  See  Minn.  Exp.  Sta.  Bulletin  98.  When 
present  in  very  great  excess,  it  supplants  oxygen  in  blood, 
causes  paralysis  of  heart,  and  overw^ork,  then  failure,  of  the 
lungs. 

Hydrogen  sulphide  may  also  be  present  in  the  air.  Four 
tenths  (.4  per  cent)  per  cent  is  said  to  be  fatal  to  horses,, 
causing  diarrhea  and  extreme  weakness. 

Nitrogen  is  nearly  negative  in  effect.  It  dilutes  oxygen 
and  CO2. 


92  VETERINARY   STUDIES 

Ammonia  in  air  must  also  be  regarded  as  an  impurity 
so  far  as  animal  life  is  concerned,  mainly  because  of  the 
organic  matters  with  which  it  associates. 

Practical  application.  —  A  very  practical  lesson  and  a 
very  obvious  one  is  to  breed  from  sound  and  vigorous 
stock.  Farmers  do  unwisely  when  they  patronize  unsound 
and  inferior  sires,  simply  because  the  cost  of  service  is  low. 
The  Minnesota  Stallion  Law  specifies  the  following  diseases 
as  bars  for  registration  on  the  ground  that  the  diseases  are 
transmissible  either  directly  or  indirectly  by  heredity: 
cataract,  amaurosis,  laryngeal  hemiplegia  (roaring  or 
whistling),  chorea  (St.  Vitus'  dance,  crampiness,  shivering, 
springhalt),  bone  spavin,  ringbone,  sidebone,  and  curb 
w^hen  accompanied  by  curby  hock. 

Farmers  should  not  patronize  stallions  affected  with  any 
of  these  conditions,  nor  should  they  be  misled  into  pur- 
chasing such  stallions.  The  present  outlook  is  that  such 
stallions  will  be  barred  from  public  service  in  a  large  num- 
ber of  states  within  a  few  years.  It  should  be  borne  in 
mind  that  a  fat  animal  is  not  necessarily  sound  or  healthy. 
Domestic  animals  may  be  and  frequently  are  in  show  con- 
dition and  yet  badly  diseased. 

The  spread  of  tuberculosis  in  a  stable  is  a  good  illustra- 
tion of  transmission  of  disease  due  to  bad  air  conditions. 
With  an  infectious  case  of  tuberculosis  already  in  the  herd, 
-tuberculosis  spreads  much  more  rapidly  in  unventilated 
•stables  than  in  well-ventilated  stables. 

Ventilation,  therefore,  is  very  important  and  should  be 
thorough.  It  accomplishes  two  purposes:  admits  oxygen, 
dilutes  and  removes  impurities.  Good  ventilation  implies 
rapid  change  in  air  without  direct  draughts  upon  confined 
animals.  Each  mature  cow  or  horse  should  have  about  .35 
;square  feet  of  floor  space  and  at  least  1000  cubic  feet  of  air 
—  better  1500,  and  this  should  be  renewed  frequently  (see 
Lecture  on  Ventilation). 

Sunshine  is  equally  important,  for  sunshine  is  nature's 
universal  disinfectant,  kilUng  more  or  less  rapidly  germs  of 
disease. 


LECTURE  XXI 

CAUSES   AND   PREVENTION   OF  DISEASES 

VENTILATION 

Purposes.  —  There  are  two  purposes  in  ventilation,  viz. 
getting  fresh  air  with  its  oxygen  into  a  stable,  and  getting 
impurities  out,  and  these  are  equally  important. 

Impurities.  —  The  common  impurities  of  air  are  disease 
germs  and  their  products;  carbon  dioxide  gas,  various 
volatile  matters  from  the  lungs,  together  with  the  various 
excretions  and  the  products  which  result  from  their  chemical 
decompositions. 

Stable  air.  —  One  good  authority  (F.  Smith)  reports  an 
analyses  of  air  for  European  stables.  The  average  of  28 
analysis  gave  .14  per  cent  carbonic  gas  (COo).  In  another 
series  of  28  analyses  he  found  an  average  of  .21  per  cent.  A 
French  authority  found  .7  per  cent  COo  in  a  military  stable. 
For  a  normal  outside  air  we  may  take  about  .03  per  cent 

C0.2. 

In  some  of  our  own  work  (Reynolds  and  Lipp)  with  a 
steer  closely  confined  in  an  especially  prepared  tight  stall 
we  obtained  the  following  record  of  CO'  percentages  after 
varying  periods  of  confinement  and  with  very  accurate 
work.  After  6  hours,  .94  per  cent;  after  12  hours,  .71 
per  cent;  average  after  two  24-hour  periods,  1.03  per  cent; 
after  48  hours,  .68  per  cent.  The  animal  was  a  young 
steer  weighing  about  500  pounds,  and  was  confined  in  a 
stall  containing  784  cubic  feet  of  air. 

Another  steer  200  pounds  heavier  in  the  same  series  of 
experiments  gave  for  an  average  of  three  24-hour  periods, 
1.09  per  cent;   at  42  hours,  .98  per  cent.     It  may  be  inter- 

,   93 


94  VETERINARY   STUDIES 

esting  for  the  student  to  note  the  decrease  of  CO2  rather 
than  an  increase,  which  would  usually  be  expected.  This 
occurred  many  times  in  our  experimental  work  and  is  quite 
easily  explained  on  chemical  grounds. 

Necessity  of  ventilation.  —  To  illustrate  the  effect  of  poor 
sanitary  conditions,  particularly  lack  of  ventilation,  it  is 
only  necessary  to  call  attention  to  the  common  experience 
of  moving  an  animal  affected  with  a  chronic  type  of  glanders 
or  tuberculosis  from  a  well-lighted  and  well-ventilated  stable 
to  one  where  the  conditions  are  the  opposite.  Under  the 
latter  conditions  there  is  rapid  development  of  a  disease 
which  had  been  mild. 

Sick  animals  especially  need  free  ventilation.  This  is. 
particularly  true  in  certain  diseases,  e.g.  tetanus  and  dis- 
eases of  the  lungs. 

A  moderately  warm  barn  in  a  cold  climate  is  not  objec- 
tionable, providing  sanitary  conditions,  such  as  abundant 
air,  sunlight,  good  food,  and  water,  are  provided.  But  mak- 
ing a  barn  warm  and  tight  may  very  easily  establish  an 
ideal  place  for  the  propagation  of  germs  and  the  spread  of 
disease. 

Carbonic  gas  (CO2)  can  no  longer  be  considered  a  reliable 
index  of  an  atmosphere's  injurious  quality.  In  fact  our 
work  has  shown  it  to  be  a  very  unreliable  guide  in  this 
respect.  But  it  is  a  very  convenient  guide  as  to  ventilation 
accomplished. 

Unventilated  stable  air.  —  Writers  and  teachers  on  the 
subject  of  hygiene  are  agreed  that  unventilated  air  is  harm- 
ful. The  student  may  safely  take  their  statements  as  cor- 
rect in  a  general  w^ay,  but  may  just  as  safely  doubt  the 
usual  explanation. 

Work  done  at  the  Minnesota  Experiment  Station  seems 
to  demonstrate  quite  conclusively  that  the  accepted  ex- 
planations are  incorrect;  that  any  probable  increase  of 
CO2  or  any  probable  decrease  of  oxygen  are  not  especially 
important.  This  work  seems  to  show  that  the  injury 
comes  from  entirelv  different  factors. 


CAUSES  AND   PREVENTION   OF   DISEASES  95 

The  Minnesota  Station  has  had  a  number  of  different 
animals  continue  apparently  in  good  health  when  confined 
for  very  considerable  periods  in  very  high  percentages  of 
CO.).  In  one  case  a  steer  made  good  gains,  was  bright  and 
active,  and  showed  no  important  physiological  disturbances 
when  confined  in  air  containing  CO2,  ranging  as  high  as 
2.67  per  cent,  or  nearly  90  times  the  average  for  outside  air. 

Experimental  work  shows  that  decrease  of  oxygen  does 
not  lessen  the  amount  absorbed  by  the  animal  until  we 
reach  the  very  low  level  of  about  13  per  cent,  20.97  per 
cent  being  taken  as  a  normal.  But  13  volumes  per  cent  is 
much  lower  than  would  be  found  in  any  stable. 

Excretion  of  CO2  may  be  checked  and  difficult  respiration 
occur  in  case  of  very  great  excess  of  this  gas.  It  has 
been  found  by  other  experimenters  that  when  the  air  con- 
tains from  3  to  4  volumes  per  cent  of  COo  the  excretion  of 
gas  may  be  checked  50  per  cent,  but  without  harmful  effect 
that  could  be  detected.  The  excretion  of  CO2  is  practically 
independent  of  percentage  of  oxygen  in  the  air.  One  very 
good  authority  (Landois)  tells  us  that  tissue  metabolism  is 
not  disturbed  by  variation  of  oxygen  within  a  range  between 
10.5  to  87  per  cent.  Below  10.5  percentage  of  oxygen 
there  were  marked  physiological  disturbances,  but  this  is 
far  below  any  probable  stable  percentage. 

There  does  not  appear  any  good  reason  for  doubting  the 
importance  of  stable  ventilation.  It  is  equally  plain,  how- 
ever, that  the  injurious  effects  of  un ventilated  air  in  com- 
mon stables  does  not  come  from  high  CO2  or  low  oxygen 
percentages,  and  that  we  must  seek  the  explanation  in  other 
directions.  Accumulation  of  harmful  germs  may  give  a 
portion  of  the  explanation. 

Natural  forces.  —  The  factors  that  operate  in  natural  ven- 
tilation are:  — 

First.   The  force  of  the  wind. 

Second.   Weight  of  air,  as  varied  by  its  temperature. 

Third.    Diffusion  of  gases  in  obedience  to  a  natural  law. 

Wind.  —  The  force  of  the  wind  is  probably  the  most  im- 


96 


VETERINARY  STUDIES 


portant  one  of  these  factors,  and  must  always  be  taken 
into  consideration  in  planning  ventilation  or  in  mathe- 
matical estimates  of  the  amount  of  air  needed.  It  is,  of 
course,  irregular,  but  variations  can  be  made  in  the  ventilat- 
ing facilities  to  compensate  for  this.     A  fundamental  point 


Fig.  33.  —  Ventil.\tion.     (Paige.) 

Outlet  with  too  many  angles.  Cow  receiving  inlet  air  from  over  a  manure 

pile. 

in  using  this  factor  is  to  see  that  the  incoming  air  does  not 
pass  over  or  through  any  contaminating  source,  e.g.  over 
a  manure  pile,  and  it  is  very  important  that  tne  general 
plan  of  construction  should  be  well  considered. 

Temperature  and  weight.  —  The  second  factor,  difference 
in  weight  between  the  lighter  warm  and  heavier  cold  air, 
is  not  so  important  in  natural  as  in  artificial  ventilation, 
and  yet  it  is  a  factor  of  considerable  importance.  The  heat 
which  warms  the  air  in  the  lower  levels  is  that  which  comes 
from  the  bodies  of  the  confined  animals,  as  it  is  radiated 
from  the  surface  or  warmed  in  passing  through  the 
lungs. 

Diffusion  of  gases.  —  Carbonic  gas  is  considerably  heavier 
than  air,  and  the  lower  levels  usually  contain  a  slightly 
higher  percentage  than  the  higher  ones  in  a  str>ble,  but  the 
difference  is  not  so  great  as  one  would  suppose,  on  account 
of  the  diffusion  which  takes  place  in  response  to  the  law 
of   diffusion   of   gases  —  which   operates   independently   of 


CAUSES  AND  PREVENTION   OF   DISEASES 


97 


relative  weights.  This  force  is  so  strong-  in  its  action  that 
some  diffusion  takes  phice  through  unpainted  kiniber  and 
through  ordinary  brick,  but  to  a  "very  sHght  extent  if  at  all 
through  painted  surfaces  or  paper. 

AIR    CURRENTS 

An  entering  current  of  air  has  the  effect  of  inducing  other 
currents  within  the  stable,  the  induced  current  setting  in  at 
right  angles  to  the  inlet  current. 

With  "vvindows  wide  open  to  windward,  openings  on  the 


/^^  /'^\' 


'^^yy^^'^ 


Fig.  34. — Ventilation. 
Air  Currents. 


{Paige.) 
Manger  front  inlet. 


other  side  of  the  stable  being  closed,  and  with  ridge  ven- 
tilation, it  is  found*  that  the  current  of  air  rushes  in, 
strikes  the  floor  at  a  variable  distance  after  spreading  out 
somewhat,  then  rises  and  most  of  it  passes  out  at  the  ridge. 
A  current  decreases  very  rapidly  in  velocity  after  the  first 
five  or  six  feet  from  the  inlet.  The  atmosphere  immediately 
under  the  inlet  is  but  moderately  disturbed. 

When  opposite  windows  are  open,  the  air  comes  in  from 
the  windward  side,  strikes  the  ground,  rises  again,  and  a 
considerable  portion  passes  directly  out  at  the  opposite 
side.  But  a  sudden  change  in  the  outside  currents  may 
temporarily  reverse  this  series. 

With  the  windward  window  half  open,  the  window  on 


Paige 


98 


VETERINARY  STUDIES 


the  lee  side  being  oi)en,  the  current  passes  directly  through 
the  stable  without  mixing  well  with  the  air  inside. 

When  the  windows  are  all  closed,  and  a  door  open,  then 
the  ridge  gives  a  fairly  regular  outlet  ventilation.  The 
exact  movement  of  the  air  within  the  stable  would  be 
varied,  of  course,  by  stall  partitions  and  other  obstructions. 
A  strong  wind  passing  over  a  stable  provided  with  ven- 
tilating shaft  may  have  an  outward  suction  effect,  especially 
if  some  provision  is  made  to  insure  this  result.  This  may 
be  accomplished  by  putting  a  flange  around  the  upper 
opening  so  as  to  direct  the  outside  current  of  air  upward 
as  it  strikes  the  end  of  the  outlet  shaft. 

Outlets.  —  In  cases  where  suitable  outlets  are  provided 
above,  and  the  conditions  are  favorable,  warmed  air  passes 
upward  and  out  of  the  room  or  building ;  but  if  such  outlets 
are  not  provided,  then  of  course  the  heated  air  merely  rises 
to  the  ceiling,  cools,  spreads  out  and  descends,  and  no  pure 
air  can  come  in  to  take  its  place.  If  the  outlets  are  too 
high,  the  effects  are  practically  the  same  as  though  there 

were  no  outlets  at  all,  for 
the  air  becomes  cool  be- 
fore it  escapes,  and  falls 
again. 

Wing  describes  a  form 
of  cupola  ventilation 
which  has  been  found 
quite  satisfactory  in  j^ro- 
viding  air  outlet  for  some 
])arns  (see  Fig.  35).  This 
cupola  outlet  seems  always 
in  operation.  There  is  no  chance  for  wind  to  blow  in  and 
force  strong  down  drafts.  When  in  working  order,  it  serves 
always  as  an  outlet.  It  is  easily  closed  by  a  rope  from  the 
ground  floor. 

This  cupola  ventilator  consists  of  a  common  cupola  with 
doors  on  two  ojjposite  sides  hinged  above. 

Connected  with  these  doors,  >S;  0,  is  a  light  board  B,  cut 


Fig.  35.  —  Ccpola  Ventilation. 


CAUSES  AND  PREVENTION  OF  DISEASES  99 

in  the  middle  and  hinged.  Wlien  this  board  is  straight,  it 
holds  one  or  both  doors  partly  open.  If  the  wind  blows 
against  one  side,  that  door  closes  and  the  lee  side  window 
opens.     To  close  both  doors  pull  down  on  the  rope  R. 

Amount  of  ventilation  needed.  —  The  horse  passes  45  cubic 
feet  of  air  through  the  lungs  per  hour.  This,  then,  would 
be  the  amount  which  the  average  horse  would  use  if  he  were 
out  in  the  open  where  the  supply  is  inexhaustible.  It  is 
impossible  to  have  the  air  of  any  occupied  stable  as  pure 
as  the  outside  atmosphere.  The  purpose  of  ventilation  is 
to  come  as  near  to  this  point  as  may  be  feasible. 

It  has  been  estimated  that  the  air  should  not  be  changed 
more  than  six  times  per  hour  in  cool  weather,  on  account 
of  drafts  which  more  frequent  change  would  produce,  and 
the  loss  of  animal  heat. 

Air  passing  at  the  rate  of  3  miles  per  hour,  which  is 
barely  perceptible,  through  an  opening  1  foot  square,  ad- 
mits 15,840  cubic  feet  per  hour.  A  shaft  2  feet  square  ad- 
mitting a  current  of  air  moving  at  the  average  rate  of  3 
miles  per  hour  is  estimated  to  provide  sufficient  ventilation 
for  20  cows. 


LECTURE  XXII 

CAUSES  AND   PREVENTION   OF   DISEASES 

VENTILATION  —  Continued 

Stable  Construction 

Space  needed.  —  A  large  cubic  space  per  animal  is  im- 
portant, but  this  does  not  lessen  the  necessity  for  ventila- 
tion. The  atmosphere  in  a  large  stable  with  a  given  num- 
ber of  animals  may  become  just  as  foul  as  a  smaller  stable 
with  the  same  number  of  animals,  the  only  difference  being 
in  the  length  of  time  required  to  reach  this  condition.  The 
chief  value  in  a  large  amount  of  space  is  that  it  gives  the 
possibility  of  admitting  a  sufficient  amount  of  air  without 
such  severe  drafts  as  would  necessarily  be  the  result  of 
admitting  the  same  amount  of  air  per  hour  into  a  smaller 
stable. 

Location.  —  In  order  that  a  stable  may  be  well  lighted  and 
well  ventilated  it  is  necessary  to  have  considerable  care  in 
selecting  the  location  and  planning  the  proportions  of  the 
building.  One  of  the  most  desirable  forms  is  that  of  a  main 
part  standing  east  and  west  and  used  in  a  general  way  for 
storing  purposes,  with  one  or  two  "  ells  "  at  right  angles  to 
this  on  the  south.  This  arrangement  makes  possible  a  very 
satisfactory  and  well-protected  yard  on  the  south  side,  and 
gives  an  even  lighting  to  the  various  portions  of  the  "  ells  '^ 
in  which  the  animals  are  kept.  It  will  be  readily  seen  that 
when  a  stable  extends  east  and  west,  and  is  wide  enough 
for  two  rows  of  stalls,  the  animals  on  the  north  side  do  not 
get  much  light,  for  the  general  lighting  of  their  portion  of 
the  stable  is  poor. 

100 


CAUSES  AND  PREVENTION   OF  DISEASES 


101 


Fig.  36.  —  Ventilation".     (Paige.) 


Width.  —  A  stable  to  be  capable  of  the  best  ventilation 
should  not  be  over  25  to  30  feet  in  width;  and  the  lower 
the  better  within  limits,  when  one  is  depending  on  natural 
conditions. 

Windows.  —  In  order  to  secure 
suitable  ventilation  in  a  building 
of  this  kind  two  sets  of  windows 
should  be  provided,  at  least  one 
set  on  each  side ;  and  better, 
two  sets  on  each  side.  Doors 
and  windows  should  be  opposite, 
i.e.  door  opposite  door  and  win- 
/  dow  opposite  window  wherever 
practicable. 

T.  1  i      1     •  1        1-   -^r  duct  obstructed  by  cob- 

It  can  be  stated   m   a  general  webs  and  dust. 
way  that  where  one  is  depending     -;.  stationary    outlet    cowl    to 

''  .        .  utilize    the   force   of   the  wind   for 

upon      natural      ventilation,       and    producing  upward  suction,  and  to 
,1  •       •       1  i_x     •  1  1       ...1        prevent  down  draft. 

the  air   is    brought  in   cold,    the 

inlet  should  be  low  and  the    outlet    high;    but    this   does 

not  imply  that  the  stable  need  be  very  high. 

Shafts  and  tubes.  —  In  considering  ventilation  by  shafts 
and  tubes,  it  should  be  remembered  that  circular,  straight 
tubes  are  preferable,  and  as  for  outlets,  the  shorter  the 
better.  It  is  estimated  that  a  right-angle  bend  in  an  outlet 
diminishes  the  velocity  of  the  outgoing  air  about  one  half. 
Where  it  is  absolutely  necessary  that  an  outlet  tube  should 
change  its  course,  it  should  be  done  in  a  curve  or  slight 
bend  rather  than  by  a  right-angle  bend.  All  parts  of  such 
shafts  and  tubes  should  be  accessible  for  cleaning  purposes,, 
as  it  is  no  uncommon  thing  for  them  to  become  obstructed 
by  cobwebs  and  dust  so  as  to  be  practicalh'  useless.  In  a 
general  way  the  outlet  tube,  if  near  an  outside  wall,  should 
be  placed  on  the  south  side  of  the  building,  so  as  to  econo- 
mize the  heat  of  the  sun  in  rendering  it  more  effective. 
Central  outlet  tubes  are  generally  more  efficient,  because  they 
cool  less  the  column  of  air. 

Several  small  inlets  are  alwavs  better  than  one  or  two 


102 


VETERINARY  STUDIES 


large  ones,  as  they  admit  the  same  volume  of  air,  and  give 
it  better  distribution,  without  direct  currents. 

Sheringham  valve.  —  The  Sheringham  valve  is  simple  and 
efficient  for  a  stable  of  suitable  construction.     This  system 

consists  essentially 
of  windows  hinged 
at  the  bottom  and 
guarded  at  the 
sides  so  as  to  make 
troughs  as  the  win- 
dows open  inward. 
This  gives  the  air 
an  upward  current, 
passing  over  the 
backs  of  the  ani- 
mals and  settling 
down  without  di- 
rect current.  There 
should  preferably 
be  two  sets  of  win- 
dows on  each  side,  the  lower  windows  being  generally  used 
for  inlets  on  the  windward  side,  and  the  higher  windows  for 
the  outlets  on  the  leeward  side.  This  affords  a  very  simple, 
Inexpensive,  and  easily  manipulated  method  of  ventilation, 
and  may  be  combined  with  ventilating  shafts.  Outlet 
ventilating  shafts  should  have  openings  near  the  ceiling, 
and  also  close  to  the  floor,  so  that  their  use  can  be  regulated 
according  to  season  and  temperature.  The  upper  openings 
of  the  shaft  being  used  in  hot  weather,  and  the  lower  open- 
ings in  cold  weather. 

There  should  be  a  number  of  medium-sized  or  even  small 
windows  in  this  system  rather  than  a  few  large  ones.  The 
same  amount  of  air  can  be  allowed  to  enter  through  the 
small  openings  without  direct  draft,  and  with  much  better 
distribution. 


Fig.  37. — Ventilation.     (Paige.) 

1.  Sheringham  window  in  section. 

2.  Sheringham  window,  opening  inward.     Seen  from 
outside. 


LECTURE  XXIII 

CAUSES   AND   PREVENTION   OF   DISEASES 

FOOD 

Food  may  be  a  factor  in  animal  disease  when  excessive 
in  amount,  insufficient,  too  concentrated,  too  coarse,  bulky^ 
and  innutritions  for  the  animal  that  receives  it;  poor  in 
quality;  when  given  in  a  poorly  balanced  ration  or  at  ir- 
regular or  improper  intervals;  when  given  a  very  tired  or 
hot  animal;  when  carrying  vegetable  or  animal  parasites; 
or  when  suddenly  changed,  e.g.  poor  to  rich  pasture;  and 
when  poisonous. 

Excessive  amount.  —  Common  tendency  to  overfeed  re- 
sults in  azoturia,  heaves,  colic,  etc.,  among  horses;  milk 
fever,  etc.,  among  cowS;  and  favors  the  development  of  all 
febrile  diseases.  Only  a  certain  amount  can  be  absorbed 
or  used;  the  remainder  causes  trouble. 

Deficiency  predisposes  to  all  diseases  that  are  favored  by 
a  lessened  vitality.  Glanders  and  similar  diseases  are  es- 
pecially apt  to  occur  or  to  increase  in  severity  among  horses 
that  are  poorly  fed.  Deficiency  in  food  mineral  matters 
predisposes  toward  certain  diseases  of  bone.  Deficiency  of 
albumin  results  in  loss  of  energy  and  strength,  and  animals 
so  fed  are  apt  to  be  languid  and  weak. 

Coarse,  bulky,  and  innutritions  food  may  cause  colic,  in- 
digestion, heaves,  and  impactions;  especially  apt  to  cause 
trouble  with  animals  with  small  stomachs,    e.g.  horse. 

Poor  quality,  e.g.  hay  cut  too  ripe  or  rained  on  after  cut, 
light  oats,  etc.  Objections  same  as  deficiency,  also  favors 
colic,  impactions,  and  anaemia. 

A  food  may  be  poorly  balanced  and  dangerous  though  very 

103 


104  VETERINARY  STUDIES 

nutritious;  e.g.  beans,  wheat,  oil  meal,  and  cotton-seed  meal 
contain  alone  too  much  protein  and  not  enough  ash,  fat,  and 
carbohydrates.  When  fed  in  the  unbalanced  ration,  such 
excess  of  protein  may  cause  febrile  disturbances,  diarrhea, 
congestion  of  the  liver,  azoturia,  and  milk  fever.  A  similar 
excess  of  carbohydrates  or  fats  may  cause  an  injurious  de- 
position of  fat  under  the  skin;  into  and  between  the  fibers 
of  voluntary  muscles,  or  in  the  heart  and  liver.  Excess  of 
fats  causes  diarrhea  and  checks  absorption. 

Faulty  intervals  interfere  with  digestion  and  thrift,  and 
may  cause  such  disorders  as  colic  and  impaction.  Cows 
may  be  fed  at  longer  intervals  than  horses;  but  both  should 
be  fed  regularly.  A  horse  that  goes  a  long  time  without 
food  and  then  gets  abundance  is  apt  to  have  colic. 

Vegetable  parasites,  like  bunt,  smut,  rust,  ergot,  and  mil- 
dew, may  cause  abortions,  diabetes,  anaemia,  and  putrid  sore 
throat. 

Animal  parasites  infest  several  foods;  lessen  their  food 
value  and  cause  skin  troubles. 

Sudden  changes,  from  poor  to  rich  pastures,  favor  anthrax, 
hoven,  impaction,  and  black  leg. 

Class  differences.  —  Some  animals  may  eat  with  impunity 
what  others  cannot.  Rich  cereals  may  indirectly  cause 
laminitis  in  horse,  —  not  in  cow.  Pigs  can  eat  acorns 
freely,  but  they  are  injurious  to  other  animals. 


WATER 

Water  may  be  a  factor  in  animal  disease  when  excessive 
in  amount  or  deficient ;  when  containing  low  forms  of  vege- 
table life ;  when  containing  low  forms  of  animal  life ;  when 
it  has  received  sewage  matter;  when  very  hard,  e.g.  con- 
taining much  calcium  and  magnesium  salts;  when  given  at 
improper  intervals  or  soon  after  eating,  or  when  given  in 
large  quantities  to  a  vcrv  hot  or  tired  horse. 

Excessive   amount    of   water   lessens   the   digestibility  of 


CAUSES   AND   PREVENTION   OF  DISEASES  105 

foods,  causes  an  increased  tissue  waste,  and  favors  indiges- 
tion. 

Deficient  water  supply  may  cause  impactions  in  cattle  and 
lessen  the  excretions  from  skin  and  kidneys  in  horses. 
Horses  need  about  2  pounds  and  cows  giving  milk  about  4 
pounds  of  water  per  pound  of  dry  food;  the  amount  vary- 
ing according  to  diet  and  condition  of  the  atmosphere. 
Cows  need  much  more  than  horses  in  proportion  to  weight 
and  feed,  and  can  be  usually  trusted  to  drink  at  their  own 
pleasure.  Horses  will  frequently  drink  too  much,  especially 
when  tired  or  hot. 

Vegetable  parasites  frequently  contaminate  drinldng  water, 
and  water  may  serve  as  a  source  of  transmission  for  many 
germ  diseases;  e.g.  anthrax,  foot  and  mouth  disease,  hog 
cholera,  and  glanders. 

Animal  parasites  often  contaminate  the  water  supply, 
which  thus  serve  to  spread  parasitic  diseases;  e.g.  intestinal 
parasites. 

Sewage  matter  may  get  into  drinking  water  from  various 
sources  and  cause  abortions  and  poison  the  system  in  many 
ways  that  may  result  in  different  diseases. 

Hard  water  ma}'  contain  much  calcium,  magnesium,  etc., 
and  cause  indigestion,  unthrifty  conditions,  and  perhaps 
calculi. 

Intervals  may  be  wrong.  Horses  should  be  watered  regu- 
larly and  at  as  short  intervals  as  convenient.  They  should 
not  be  given  large  quantities  of  water  sooner  than  one  hour 
after  eating  grain.  Much  cold  water  interferes  with  diges- 
tion, and  when  given  to  a  very  hot  or  tired  horse  may  result 
in  founder  or  indigestion. 

Practical  application.  —  With  this  lesson  in  mind  the 
student  should  hereafter  be  on  the  watch  for  milk  fever 
cases  to  see  if  the  cow  has  not  been  in  good  condition  and 
rather  heavily  fed  for  a  cow  not  milking,  and  lacldng  in 
exercise. 

He  should  be  on  the  watch  for  azoturia  (see  page  207) 
and  learn  whether  the  horse  has  not  been  idle  and  full  fed 


106  VETERINARY  STUDIES 

during  the  day  or  so  prior  to  illness.  Note  also  whether 
before  this  idle  period  there  had  not  been  a  period  of  regu- 
lar work  on  full  feed. 

He  should  be  on  the  watch  for  cases  of  heaves  among 
horses  and  if  such  horses  have  not  been  greedy  eaters  and 
heavily  fed  with  dusty  hay  or  other  bulky  food. 

Students  should  be  on  the  lookout  for  putrid  sore  throat 
(infectious  cerebro-spinal  meningitis)  in  horses  and  see  if 
such  horses  have  not  been  eating  some  spoiled,  e.g.  moldy, 
corn. 

It  will  be  interesting  for  the  student  to  be  on  the  look- 
out for  an  outbreak  of  hog  cholera  in  a  herd  that  had  access 
to  a  small  pond  or  very  sluggish  stream  and  see  if  there  is 
not  unusually  heavy  losses  in  such  cases. 


^ 


Z' 


LECTURE  XXIV 

CAUSES  AND   PREVENTION   OF   DISEASES 

PARASITISM 

Parasitism  may  be  temporary  or  permanent,  external  or 
internal. 

Parasites  of  domestic  animals  cause  greater  losses  than 
is  generally  realized.  Every  stockman  should  be  informed 
concerning  the  most  common  and  serious  parasites.  He 
should  be  especially  well  informed  concerning  sheep  parasites. 

Teviporary  when  only  a  portion  of  the  parasite's  life  his- 
tory is  with  one  host. 

Perinanent  when  its  whole  life  history  is  with  the  same 
host. 

External  or  internal^  i.e.  affecting  the  body  surface  or 
affecting  the  internal  organs. 

General  classes.  —  In  studying  diseases  of  domestic  ani- 
mals, we  deal  mainly  with  two  general  classes:  worms  and 
arthropodes. 

Worms.  —  Invertebrates  with  soft  contractile  bodies, 
either  composed  of  similar  rings  or  nonarticulated;  excretory 
organs  in  pairs  opening  externally.  Members  of  this  group 
affect  many  of  the  internal  organs  and  superficial  parts  as 
well. 

Arthropodes.  —  Invertebrates,  limbs  jointed,  bodies  com- 
posed of  dissimilar  rings.  In  this  group  also  we  find  both 
external  and  internal  parasites. 

Sources  and  causes  of  parasitic  diseases.  —  Parasites  may 
be  received  into  the  digestive  apparatus  with  food  or  drink; 
they    may    gain    entrance    through    the    respiratory   tract, 

107 


108  VETERINARY   STUDIES 

through  the  broken  skin,  or  there  may  be  external  infection 
by  contact. 

Predisposing  causes.  —  Species  of  host;  age  of  host;  con- 
dition of  host;  season  of  year  and  cUmate.  Most  animal 
parasites  are  enormously  prolific,  but  very  many  eggs  and 
immature  forms  are  destroyed.  Others  never  reach  their 
proper  host.  Female  louse  may  become  ancestor  of  10,000 
lice  in  eight  weeks;  female  itch  mite  may  be  ancestor  of 
1,000,000  in  three  months,  or  a  certain  tapeworm  will  fur- 
nish 150,000,000  eggs  in  one  year. 

How  nourished.  —  Parasites  often  live  on  the  exudate  or 
excretion  which  results  from  their  presence.  Some  have 
mouth  and  digestive  organs;  e.g.  roundworms  of  the  in- 
testines. Others  receive  their  nourishment  by  surface  ab- 
sorption or  osmosis;   e.g.  tapeworms. 

Effect  on  health  of  host  dcfjends  on  the  organ  or  organs 
invaded;  the  rapidity  of  multiplication;  the  amount  of 
nutrition  used  by  parasite,  and  amount  of  irritation  caused. 

Intestinal  parasites  cause  trouble  by  obstruction;  by  irri- 
tating and  abstracting  blood  from  the  mucous  membrane; 
by  mechanical  irritation,  and  by  using  nutrition.  Hence 
we  have  symptoms  of  indigestion,  colic,  and  unthrift. 

Liver  parasites  cause  jaundice  and  general  anaemia. 

Lung  and  bronchial  parasites  cause  bronchitis  or  pneu- 
monia. 

Parasites  in  the  blood  vessels  cause  disease  of  the  vessel 
walls,  and  may  indirectly  cause  obstructions  and  colic. 

Parasites  in  the  brain  are  more  rare  and  usually  fatal. 

Parasites  in  muscular  tissue  may  cause  little  disturbance 
to  the  animal  host,  but  be  very  serious  to  human  licalth; 
e.g.  pig  measles,  trichina,  actinomycosis  (lumpy  jaw). 

General  prevention.  —  Parasitism  would  be  impossible  if 
everything  that  comes  in  contact  with  the  animal  body 
were  free  from  parasites.  Saddles,  harness,  blankets,  posts, 
and  fences  are  the  usual  agents  which  spread  Texas  itch  or 
mange  among  horses;  round  intestinal  worms  generally  gain 
entrance  in  the  egg  or  immature  form,  with  the  water  drank. 


CAUSES  AND   PREVENTION   OF   DISEASES  109 

Ponds,  wells  which  receive  surface  drainage,  sluggish  streams 
and  marshes,  should  therefore  be  regarded  with  suspicion. 
Sound  animals  should  not  be  allowed  in  sheds,  yards,  or 
barns  where  animals  diseased  by  external  parasites,  hke  Uce 
or  scab  mites,  have  been,  until  such  structures  have  been 
disinfected.  Dogs  are  dangerous  factors  in  sheep  pastures, 
because  of  the  tapeworms  which  they  furnish  to  sheep. 
Intestinal  worms  which  appear  in  the  manure  of  horses 
should  be  destroyed  with  boiling  water,  —  not  merely 
crushed  and  thrown  away. 

General  treatment.  —  Medical  treatment  must  be  such  as 
will  destroy  or  remove  the  parasites.  Medicines  may  aid  us 
in  removing  parasites  by  suffocating  them,  e.g.  as  with  oils; 
or  by  poisoning  the  parasites;  or  by  caustic  or  irritating 
chemical  effect  on  the  bodies  of  the  parasites.  Many  para- 
sites disappear  by  means  of  their  own  activity  and  habits ; 
e.g.  ticks,  bots  in  horses,  grubs  in  backs  of  cattle,  and 
grubs  in  the  nasal  passages  and  head  cavities  of  sheep.  It 
is  well  to  remember  also  that  many  parasites  can  resist 
stronger  medicines  than  the  organs  or  tissues  they  invade; 
e.g.  bots  in  the  horse's  stomach. 


EXTERNAL   PARASITES 

Most  serious  are  the  following:  itch,  mange,  and  sheep 
scab  (due  to  mites),  Uce,  ticks,  flies,  and  ringworms. 

Mite  diseases  {acariasis).  —  The  various  forms  of  itch  or 
mange  in  horses,  cattle,  and  hogs;  scab  in  sheep;  scabies  in 
cats  and  dogs  are  all  similar  in  cause,  contagiousness,  pre- 
vention, damage  done,  and  in  treatment.  These  diseases 
are  caused  by  minute  animal  parasites.  See  Horse  Mange, 
Lecture  XXVI. 

Causes.  —  Three  types  of  mites,  or  acari,  affect  man  and 
the  lower  animals,  all  very  small:  (a)  sarcoptes,  (6)  psorop- 
tes,  (c)  symbiotes.  Each  species  of  animal  seems  to  have 
its  own  species  of  each  of  these  varieties  of  mites. 


110 


VETERINARY  STUDIES 


The  horse  does  not  take  mange  from  cattle  or  scab  from 
sheep,  and  so  it  is  with  other  animals. 

Sarcoptes  burrow  channels  and  live  in  or  beneath  the  skin. 

The    eggs     are     laid     and    young 
hatched  in  these  channels. 

Psoroptes  live  on  skin  surface. 
They  can  move  around  on  the 
surface  and  spread  rapidly. 

Symbiotes  affect  regions  near 
the  feet  and  move  about  very 
little. 

Diagnosis    of    mite     disease    is 
Fig.  38.  — Mange  Mite.         made  ou  the  Condition  of  the  skin, 
The  cause  of   one  form  of    wMch  becomes  dry  and  wrinkled 

horse   mange.       fsoroptes    corn- 
munis  equi.  or  leathery,  with  hairs  partly  gone ; 

intense  itching  and  the  mites  may 

be  found  among  scales  and  roots  of  hairs,  by  standing  the 

patient  in  the  hot  sun  on  the  south  side  of  a  building,  or 

by  scraping  off  some  of  the  diseased  skin  on  ^ 

a  piece  of  black  cloth  and  laying  this  in      (a'^'''^^^''^  l^ 

the  hot  sun.     The  mites  may  then  be  seen    ^^-^j^^Bst^^^^ 

with  a  lens. 

To  find  the  sarcoptes,  it  is  necessary  to 
scrape  deeply. 

General  treatment.  —  For  mite  diseases 
the  treatment  is  essentially  the  same  for 
all  animals.  Scrubbing  brush,  with  soap 
and  warm  water,  is  a  great  help,  and  then 
some  application  to  kill  the  mites.  Sheep 
are  dipped,  larger  animals  are  usually 
bathed.  Shearing  of  sheep  is  almost 
necessary  to  satisfactory  treatment.  Clipping  larger  ani- 
mals is  quite  an  aid.  Treatment  must  be  thorough  and 
directions  followed.  Sheep  must  go  under,  head  and  all. 
(Sec  Mange  and  Sheep  Scab,  pages  112  and  119.) 

General  prevention  of  all  forms  of  acariasis  is  merely  the 
prevention  of  a  skin  infection.     Generous  feeding  is  a  good 


2^^ 


Fig.    39.— Cattle 
Louse.   Female. 

Haematopinus 
eurysternus. 


CAUSES  AND  PREVENTION   OF  DISEASES  111 

prevention  for  many  of  the  parasitic  diseases,  because  it 
does  not  allow  animals  like  colts  and  calves  to  become  thin 
and  weak,  and  thus  easy  subjects  for  parasitic  invasion. 
Tonics  are  frequenth'  valuable  to  build  up  strength  and 
increase  the  resisting  powers. 


DISEASES  —  PARASITIC 

LECTURE  XXV 

SHEEP   SCAB 

Sheep  scab  is  the  result  of  irritation  caused  by  little  ani- 
mal parasites  as  they  burrow  tunnels  into  the  skin  or  punc- 
ture it  from  the  surface.  There  are  three  types  of  these 
mites  and  three  types  of  the  disease  which  they  cause. 
One  variety  of  these  mites  produces  body  scab,  another 
produces  head  scab,  and  a  third  produces  foot  scab.  Body 
scab  is  by  far  the  most  common  and  most  serious  economically. 

BODY    SCAB 

General  history.  —  Body  scab  is  caused  by  mites  which 
have  free  power  of  movement  (Psoroptes).  This  is  the 
most  common  and  serious  type  of  sheep  scab,  because  it 
spreads  most  rapidly  over  the  individual  body,  and  also 
spreads  most  rapidly  through  the  flock. 

This  disease  appears  insidiously,  and  is  liable  to  become 
quite  serious  before  being  noticed  by  the  owner.  The  para- 
sites which  cause  this  type  of  the  disease  do  not  tunnel  into 
the  skin,  but  they  cause  intense  irritation  by  reason  of  their 
presence  and  mode  of  life  beneath  the  scabs.  The  owner 
will  usually  remember,  after  he  has  become  aware  that  body 
scab  exists  in  his  flock,  that  his  sheep  have  seemed  uneasy 
and  some  of  them  have  been  rubbing  and  biting  themselves 
occasionally  for  some  time. 

The  parasites  live  beneath  the  crusts  after  the  disease  is 
well  under  way,  and  constantly  migrate  outward,  while  the 
skin  slowly  heals  in  the  center.     The  fleece  of  scabby  sheep 

112 


SHEEP  SCAB  11,3 

is  usually  rough,  the  wool  is  matted  in  places  and  easily 
rubbed  off.  The  parasites  which  cause  this  form  of  the 
disease  confine  their  work  almost  exclusively  to  parts  of 
the  body  where  the  wool  is  long  and  thick. 

How  spread.  — ■  This  form  of  the  disease  spreads  rapidly 
through  the  flock;  partly  because  of  the  location  of  parasites 
upon  the  body  of  the  sheep,  and  partly  because  of  the  freely 
moving  habits  of  the  parasites.  As  a  rule,  the  disease  spreads 
more  rapidly  in  autumn  and  winter,  because  the  wool  is 
then  long  and  thick,  furnishing  favorable  conditions  for  the 
parasites,  and  because  the  sheep  are  kept  in  closer  contact 
at  these  seasons.  The  disease  makes  more  rapid  progress 
and  is  much  more  fatal  with  the  weaker  sheep.  These  para- 
sites may  be  transferred  from  one  sheep  to  another  in  a 
great  variety  of  ways;  for  instance,  tags  of  wool  may  be 
rubbed  off  and  dropped  almost  anywhere.  Diseased  sheep 
infect  posts  and  fences  by  rubbing  against  them,  and  the 
parasites  escape  from  one  sheep  to  another  while  the  sheep 
are  in  close  contact  in  yards  and  sheds. 

These  parasites  may  revive  and  become  infectious  after  a 
short  exposure  to  severe  cold  weather,  but  are  soon  de- 
stroyed by  alternating  changes  of  heat  and  cold.  They  may 
live  three  to  four  weeks,  at  ordinary  temperatures  and 
under  ordinary  conditions,  around  stables  and  sheds.  Some 
authorities  say  they  do  not  live  longer  than  two  or  thuee 
weeks  apart  from  the  sheep's  body,  but  it  is  certainly  wise, 
to  extend  this  period  to  three  or  four  weeks  for  safety. 

FOOT   SCAB 

The  disease  caused  by  these  mites  (Symbiotes)  appears  on 
the  feet  and  limbs.  The  diseased  area  extends  very  slowly^ 
but  may  eventually  reach  the  body.  This  form  of  scab' 
spreads  very  slowly  from  one  animal  to  another,  and  is> 
therefore  much  less  serious  than  body  scab.  Sheep  having 
this  disease  are  apt  to  be  almost  constantly  stamping  and 
pawing. 


114  VETERINARY   STUDIES 

Local  treatment.  —  Any  of  the  sheep  dips  recommended 
for  body  scab  are  effective  for  this  form  of  the  disease.  A 
10  per  cent  solution  of  the  creoUn  is  simple,  safe,  and  easily 
applied. 

Any  dip  or  ointment  that  will  kill  the  parasites  is  suffi- 
cient early  in  the  disease,  but  it  may  be  necessary  in  old 
cases  to  soften  the  scabs  by  a  little  oil  or  a  thorough  scrub- 
bing with  brush  and  hot  soapsuds.     (See  treatment.) 

HEAD    SCAB 

The  mites  (Sarcoptes)  which  cause  this  type  of  the  disease 
burrow  tunnels  in  the  skin.  The  eggs  are  deposited  in  these 
tunnels  and  there  hatched.  This  type  of  the  disease  usually 
shows  its  first  symptoms  around  the  lips  or  nostrils,  but 
may  appear  on  almost  any  portion  of  the  head.  Occa- 
sionally it  invades  the  neck  and  other  portions  of  the  body 
where  the  wool  is  short.  This  form  of  scab  is  much  less 
common  and  less  serious  than  body  scab. 

GENERAL    PREVENTION 

Prevention  is  more  important  than  treatment  in  any  case 
where  it  can  be  secured,  because  it  is  surer,  it  is  cheaper, 
and  is  usually  much  easier  to  administer  than  medical 
treatment. 

Spread  of  scab.  —  Whether  the  disease  spreads  rapidly 
over  the  body  or  not  depends  to  some  extent  upon  the 
thriftiness  or  unthriftiness  of  the  individual  animal.  When 
sheep  are  fat  and  the  wool  is  well  supplied  with  yolk,  this 
disease  spreads  slowly,  and  is  much  less  serious.  The  in- 
fection is  frequently  made  when  one  sheep  rubs  against 
posts  or  fences  where  scabby  sheep  have  previously  rubbed. 
In  the  latter  case  the  mites  are  first  transferred  from  the 
diseased  sheep  to  the  post,  and  then  from  the  post  to  the 
healthy  sheep.  In  other  cases  the  mites  are  transferred 
when  a  diseased  sheep  rubs  against  a  healthy  one. 

Exposure  resistance.  —  The  mites  which  cause  foot  scab 


SHEEP  SCAB 


115 


and  body  scab  have  considerable  vitality,  being  able  to 
withstand  exposure  at  moderate  temperatures  from  one  to 
two  or  even  three  weeks  under  favorable  conditions,  pos- 
sibly longer.  They  die  sooner  in  a  dry  atmosphere  than 
moist.  Cases  are  on  record  where  sheep  seem  to  have  be- 
come infected  with  scab  in  places  where  sheep  had  not  been 


Fig.  40. — A  Plain  Case  of  Sheep  Scab. 


kept  for  many  months.  The  history  of  these  cases,  how- 
ever, is  not  well  understood,  and  it  is  difficult  to  say  posi- 
tively how  long  mites  or  their  eggs  may  preserve  vitality 
under  favorable  conditions. 

Precautions.  —  Scabby  sheep  should  not  be  driven  over 
any  public  highway.  Pens,  sheds,  and  yards  which  have 
held  scabby  sheep  should  be  thoroughly  cleaned  and  dis- 
infected, and  unless  the  disinfection  is  very  thorough  they 
should  not  be  used  for  sheep  until  at  least  four  weeks  have 
elapsed.  It  is  supposed  that  a  hard  rain  will  practically 
disinfect  ground  surfaces,  but  not  fences  and  posts.  Fields 
and  pastures  in  which  scabby  sheep  have  been  held  should 
not  be  used  again  until  after  an  interval  of  several  weeks, 
and  preferably  not  until  after  a  heavy  rain. 


116 


VETERINARY  STUDIES 


GENERAL    SYMPTOMS 

History  and  diagnosis.  —  At  the  point  of  first  infection 
there  appears  a  small,  congested  area,  showing  plainly  the 
result  of  irritation  caused  by  the  parasite.  Then  there  ap- 
pears a  little  pimple,  soft  on  top,  which  ruptures  and  a 
little  fluid  escapes.  Dust  and  other  foreign  matter  collect 
in  this  fluid  and  the  initial  scab  is  started. 

Affected  sheep  are  usually  uneasy  and  are  seen  to  scratch 
against  posts,  rub  against  other  sheep,  and  even  bite  the 
itching  surface.     The  irritation  is  most  noticeable  when  the 


^:::i 


Fig.  41.  —  S^EEP  Scab  Mites. 
Psoroptes,  male  {Curtice).  Sarcoptes  {Lugger). 


Body  scab. 


Head  scab. 


Female. 

Sarcoptes  {Pettit). 
Head  scab. 


sheep  are  heated,  as  by  exercise,  or  confined  in  a  close 
room.  At  first  the  wool  is  noticed  to  hang  in  tags,  the 
sheep  begin  to  pull  out  portions  of  the  wool  with  the  mouth, 
and  the  skin  becomes  bare  in  small  patches  which  gradually 
increase  as  the  mites  spread,  irritating  and  inflaming  the 
skin.  To  determine  the  presence  of  the  mites,  scrape  off 
some  of  the  scab  and  a  little  of  the  healthy  skin  near  the 
border  of  the  scab.  Place  these  scrapings  upon  some  smooth 
black  surface  in  warm  sunshine,  and  examine  with  a  good 
hand  lens.  The  mites  may  then  be  seen  as  minute  white 
bodies.  They  are  most  certainly  recognized  when  they  are 
seen  to  move,  and  it  is  sometimes  difficult  to  distinguish 
otherwise  between  the  mites  and  particles  of  light-colored 
dust  and  epitheHal  scales  from  the  skin  surface.     It  should 


SHEEP   SCAB  117 

be  borne  in  mind  when  examining  a  case  of  head  scab  that 
the  mites  which  cause  this  disease  burrow  beneath  the  sur- 
face of  the  skin,  and  it  is  necessary  to  scrape  deeper  than 
for  ordinary  body  scab. 

Possible  mistakes.  —  It  is  well  to  bear  in  mind  that  cer- 
tain other  conditions  may  be  mistaken  for  sheep  scab,  par- 
ticularly disorders  of  the  skin,  produced  by  other  external 
parasites;  for  instance,  hce  and  sheep  ticks.  We  have  had 
in  ^Minnesota  an  interesting  outbreak  of  skin  disease  among 
sheep  which  on  superficial  examination  resembled  rather 
closely  sheep  scab,  but  was  due  to  the  awns  of  a  certain 
wdld  grass  (Stipea  sparta),  wild  oats.  It  developed  that 
these  sheep  had  been  pastured  where  this  grass  was  abun- 
dant, and  at  a  time  when  the  awns  were  readily  separated. 
These  little  spearlike  bodies  gradually  worked  their  way 
through  the  wool  into  the  skin,  causing  inflammation  of 
the  skin  and  considerable  irritation. 

TREATMENT 

Suggestions.  —  Treatment  is  comparatively  eas}^  where 
there  are  but  few  sheep,  but  more  difficult  with  large  flocks. 
The  size  of  the  tank,  material  to  be  used,  and  method  of 
dipping  must  depend  upon  the  number  of  sheep,  accessi- 
bility and  expensiveness  of  different  materials. 

The  dipping,  as  a  rule,  should  be  done  after  shearing, 
but  it  should  be  remembered  that  treatment  for  any  para- 
sitic disease  of  sheep  should  be  given  as  early  as  practicable. 
Some  good  may  be  accomplished  if  the  wool  is  parted  by 
hand  and  care  taken  to  get  the  medicine  down  to  the  skin, 
but  it  is  the  usual  experience  that  dipping  unshorn  sheep  is 
much  less  satisfactory. 

The  entire  flock  must  be  dipped;  that  is,  those  that  are 
apparently  well  as  well  as  those  that  are  diseased.  And  the 
owner  must  bear  in  mind  that,  even  after  shearing,  the 
wool  may  be  a  source  of  danger,  and  should  be  so  kept  and 
handled  as  to  avoid  the  possibilitj^  of  reinfection. 


118  VETERINARY   STUDIES 

Dipping  is  effective  only  when  it  is  thoroughly  done. 
Tobacco,  crude  carbolic  acid,  arsenic,  lime,  and  sulphur  are 
the  various  ingredients  that  are  commonly  used  in  dipping 
for  scab.  The  quantity  of  dip  required  per  sheep  varies 
from  two  to  four  gallons,  according  to  the  number  of  sheep 
dipped  and  the  material  used.  Less  dip  is  needed  for  shorn 
than  unshorn  sheep. 

It  iS'  a  good  rule  to  use  any  dip  at  about  110  degrees 
F.  and  a  good  plan  to  rub  the  scabs  with  a  stiff  brush 
while  the  sheep  are  in  the  dip.  Dipping  should  be  repeated 
in  8  days,  and  in  some  cases  it  may  be  necessary  to  give 
even  a  third  dipping  after  a  second  interval  of  8  to  10  days. 

For  thorough  work  the  entire  flock  should  be  shorn,  then 
dipped  and  confined  for  8  to  10  days  in  a  place  where  there 
has  been  no  scabby  sheep  for  at  least  two  months.  At  the 
close  of  this  period  of  8  to  10  clays,  the  flock  should  be  re- 
dipped  and  placed  where  there  is  no  danger  of  infection. 
Sheep  should  be  watered  just  before  dipping. 

Dips.  —  A  great  variety  of  dips  have  been  recommended 
and  successfully  used.  Several  of  the  patent  dips  give 
excellent  results,  but  these  are  usually  more  expensive  than 
others  and  are  objectionable,  inasmuch  as  we  do  not  know 
their  composition.  The  following  are  perhaps  as  good  as 
any:  — 

Lime-and-siilphur  dip.  —  This  is  cheap  and  very  effective 
for  sheep  scab.  It  has  given  good  satisfaction  when  made 
and  used  according  to  directions. 

Make  this  dip  in  the  following  proportions:  ordinary  sul- 
phur  24   lbs.;    unslaked  lime   8   lbs.;    water    100    gallons. 

The  lime  and  sulphur  are  placed  in  a  large  kettle  or  other 
suitable  container.  Enough  water  is  added  to  slake  the 
lime  and  form  a  paste.  After  the  lime  is  thoroughly  slaked, 
add  30  gallons  of  water.  The  mixture  is  then  boiled  for 
3  hours  and  allowed  to  settle  overnight.  The  liquid  should 
then  be  so  drawn  off  as  to  avoid  stirring  up  the  sediment. 
A  spigot  placed  about  4  inches  from  the  bottom  of  the  barrel 
or  tank  works  nicely. 


SHEEP  SCAB  119 

For  use  add  enough  water  to  make  a  total  of  100  gallons. 
The  ooze  or  sediment  is  not  to  be  used  on  the  animal 
body,  but  makes  a  good  disinfectant  for  contaminated 
structures. 

Lime  and  sulphur  cannot  be  relied  on  to  kill  sheep  ticks. 
Tobacco  and  sulphur  or  coal-tar  dips  should  be  used  when 
there  are  both  ticks  and  scab. 

Coal-tar  dips.  —  Dips  of  this  class  are  now  accepted  by 
the  Federal  Bureau  of  Animal  Industry  when  used  in  official 
strength.  This  strength  is  usually  given  on  the  package, 
and  directions  should  be  followed  closely. 

Texas  dip.  —  What  is  known  as  the  Texas  dip  is  com- 
posed as  follows:  30  lbs.  tobacco,  7  lbs.  sulphur,  3  lbs.  con- 
centrated lye,  100  gallons  water.  Allow  the  tobacco  to 
soak  in  a  portion  of  the  water,  which  should  be  kept  warm, 
for  from  8  to  10  hours;  then  add  the  sulphur,  remainder 
of  the  water,  and  concentrated  lye,  and  boil  for  half  an  hour. 
Stir  frequently  while  using. 

Zundle^s.  —  The  following  is  a  formula  for  a  modification 
of  Zundle's  dip.  (Modifications  suggested  by  Dr.  Kaiser.) 
For  100  sheep  take  the  following:  Tobacco,  13 J  lbs.  Soak 
for  several  hours  in  66  gallons  of  water,  then  dissolve  in 
this  8  lbs.  of  carbonate  of  soda  and  4  lbs.  freshly  burned 
and  slaked  lime;  then  take  8  lbs.  of  softsoap  and  dilute 
with  some  of  the  hot  tobacco  infusion  and  add  to  the  ma- 
terials previously  mixed;  then  add  4  lbs.  crude  carbolic 
acid;    mix  thoroughly.     Use  hot. 

Dipping.  —  Each  sheep  should  be  kept  in  the  dip  at 
least  two  minutes  by  the  watch,  and  each  sheep  to  go  under 
entirely  at  least  once.  Heavily  pregnant  ewes  can  be 
safely  dipped  if  handled  with  care.  In  using  any  dip,  no 
matter  if  proprietary  or  homemade,  follow  directions  exactly. 
It  is  not  uncommon  for  stockmen  to  have  unsatisfactory 
results  from  the  use  of  well-recognized  dips,  and  it  is  usually 
because  they  try  using  the  dip  a  little  weaker  than  the 
directions  call  for,  or  because  they  were  a  little  careless  and 
hurried  the  sheep  through  the  dipping  vat  too  rapidly,  or 


120  VETERINARY  STUDIES 

by  returning  the  sheep  after  dipping  to  infected  pastures 
or  yards. 

Disinfection.  —  All  structures  that  may  have  been  con- 
taminated should  be  cleaned  and  well  disinfected  unless 
sheep  can  be  kept  away  from  them  for  a  long  period,  as 
previously  indicated. 

Any  good  dip  should  make  also  a  good  disinfectant  for 
this  use.  In  case  a  lime-and-sulphur  dip  is  selected,  then 
the  "  ooze  "  or  sediment  which  would  otherwise  be  dis- 
carded may  be  used. 


LECTURE  XXVI 
HORSE   MANGE 

Causes.  —  Mange  in  horses  is  usually  due  to  the  irritation 
caused  by  a  minute  animal  parasite,  a  mite,  belonging  to  the 
group  Arachnida.  Specifically  it  is  usually  Sarcoptes  scabiei, 
var.  equi.  This  is  one  of  the  smaller  mites  practically  in- 
visible to  the  eye. 

This  particular  species  burrows  tunnels  into  and  under 
the  skin.  The  eggs  are  laid  and  the  young  are  hatched  in 
these  tunnels.  On  account  of  this  tunneling  habit,  spread 
under  the  body  surface  is  slow  and  the  disease  difficult  to 
cure. 

Symptoms.  —  The  disease  usually  appears  first  on  the 
head  or  side  of  the  neck,  and  the  first  symptoms  are  small 
pimples  and  itching.  The  skin  loses  hair,  becoming  thick- 
ened, roughened,  and  perhaps  wrinkled.  Affected  horses 
are  much  more  uneasy  at  night,  and  particularly  in  a  warm 
stable. 

Treatment.  —  It  is  usually  necessary  to  repeat  treatment 
at  least  once  and  in  bad  cases  several  times  at  intervals  of 
ten  days.  Treat  all  horses  that  have  been  exposed  to  in- 
fection, and  watch  closely  for  reappearance  of  the  disease. 

If  the  horses  are  halter  broken,  it  is  well  to  see  that  the 
scab  is  first  removed  b}'  a  thorough  application  of  soft  soap 
well  rubbed  in  over  the  affected  surface.  The  soap  is  left 
on  for  two  or  three  hours  and  then  washed  off.  The  scab 
should  then  remove  quite  easily.  Allow  the  skin  to  dry 
and  apply  one  of  the  follo\^'ing  treatments:  — 

(fl)  Creolin,  or  any  of  the  cheaper  coal-tar  preparations, 
which  are  probably  just  as  efficient,  diluted  with  raw  lin- 

121 


122  VETERINARY   STUDIES 

seed  oil  in  the  proportion  of  1  to  IG,  and  used  for  hand  ap- 
pHcation  and  not  as  a  plunge  dip. 

(6)  The  coal-tar  preparations  diluted  with  water  in  the 
official  strength  recognized  by  the  Federal  Bureau  of  Ani- 
mal Industry  (see  directions  on  label). 

(c)  Experienced  veterinarians  have  reported  very  favor- 
ably upon  actual  trial  of  common  ''  engine  oil,"  to  which 
is  added  4  or  5  oz.  of  sulphur  per  gallon.  One  api)lica- 
tion  is  reported  as  sufficient  for  ordinary  cases.  For  un- 
usual cases  treatment  should  be  repeated  in  about  10  days. 
This  also  is  to  be  used  for  hand  applications,  not  as  a  plunge 
dip. 

(d)  Crude  petroleum  is  now  recognized  and  especially 
recommended  by  our  federal  authorities.  This  is  made  into 
a  20  per  cent  mixture  with  soap  emulsion.  Take  20  gallons 
crude  oil  and  80  gallons  water  containing  about  5  lbs.  soap. 
Available  water  differs  so  much  in  different  sections  that  it 
is  difficult  to  specify  exactly  the  amount  of  soap  that  will 
be  needed.  Any  one  wishing  to  use  this  method  should 
first  make  up  the  soap  emulsion  and  then  test  it  with  one 
quarter  its  bulk  of  oil  to  see  if  there  results  a  good  emul- 
sion after  thorough  mixing.  If  the  oil  does  not  emulsify 
well,  add  more  soap. 

(e)  The  lime-and-sulphur  dip  is  prepared  as  for  sheep^ 
page  118,  except  that  we  use  12  lbs.  of  lime  instead  of  8. 

The  lime-and-sulphur  dip  is  probably  not  so  reliable  as 
an  oil  dip,  but  is  used  and  recommended  by  some  experi- 
enced authorities. 

If  a  very  large  portion  of  the  body  surface  is  affected, 
either  (6),  (d),  or  (e)  should  l)e  used  as  a  dip;  dips  («)  or 
(c)  may  be  used  on  about  one  quarter  of  the  surface  each 
day  until  the  entire  body  has  been  treated. 

Always  treat  apparently  healthy  skin  to  a  considerable 
distance  beyond  the  diseased  border,  in  case  of  small 
areas. 

Prognosis.  —  The  prospect  of  recovery  is  good  in  recent 
cases,  but  if  the  horse  has  been  long  affected  and  the  disease 


MANGE  123 

covers  a  considerable  portion  of  the  body,  then  the  prospect 
is  not  encouraging. 

Disinfection.  — AW  structures  which  may  have  become 
contaminated  should  be  thoroughly  disinfected.  The  ooze 
or  sediment  made  in  the  preparation  of  the  sulphur  dip 
will  serve  well  for  this  purpose,  or  a  6  per  cent  solution  of 
any  of  the  better  coal-tar  disinfectants  may  serve  the  same 
purpose. 

CATTLE    MANGE 

This  is  the  same  general  disease  as  horse  mange  and  sheep 

scab. 

Mange  causes  serious  trouble  and  losses  in  range  cattle 
and  is  occasionally  a  source  of  serious  trouble  among  farm 
herds.  Of  the  latter,  breeding  herds  seem  most  apt  to  be- 
come infected  on  account  of  more  frequent  opportunities 
by  the  purchase  of  new  breeding  stock.  This  disease  is 
rarely  fatal  in  cattle  that  are  well  kept;  but  is  a  source  of 
financial  losses  by  reason  of  unthrift.  In  farm  herds  it  is 
a  serious  nuisance^  to  say  the  least,  and  should  not  be  neg- 
lected or  ignored. 

Cause.  — Cattle  mange  is  due  to  mite,  Psoroptes  com- 
munis, var.  bovis,  similar  in  general  to  the  mite  which  causes 
horse  mange.  The  mite  of  cattle  mange  is  larger  than  the 
one  causing  horse  mange,  being  visible  under  favorable  con- 
ditions. 

It  lives  upon  the  surface  of  the  body  and  can  move 
about  rather  freely ;  hence  the  disease  sp-eads  more  rapidly 
than  horse  mange  and  is  easier  to  cure.  The  skin  irritation 
and  inflammation  is  due  to  punctures  which  the  mites  make 
in  order  to  suck  through  them  their  nourishment. 

Symptoms.  —  Symptoms  of  cattle  mange  are  similar  in  a 
general  way  to  those  shown  in  mange  of  horses.  With 
cattle  the  disease  usually  appears  first  on  the  neck  or  shoulder 
or  near  the  tail,  and  from  these  places  it  spreads  over  other 
portions  of  the  body.  The  skin  becomes  bald,  thickened, 
and  wrinkled,  perhaps  badly  scratched  and  sore  as  a  result  of 
rubbing. 


124  VETERINARY  STUDIES 

There  may  be  very  little  to  show  for  mange  while  the 
cattle  are  out  on  grass  and  doing  well,  although  the  mites 
are  still  present  on  the  body.  Fall,  winter,  and  early 
spring  are  the  seasons  of  greatest  prevalence  and  annoyance. 

Treatment.  —  Cattle  may  be  either  dipped  like  sheep  or 
treated  with  local  applications  according  to  the  extent  of 
the  disease  and  number  of  animals  affected.  Dipping  may 
be  done  either  in  a  long  swimming  tank,  or  the  animals  may 
be  dipped  one  at  a  time  in  a  dipping  cage. 

Every  portion  of  the  body  surface  should  usually  be 
treated  either  by  wash  or  dip.  In  case  of  dipping,  all  por- 
tions of  the  body  should  go  under  the  dip  at  least  once, 
and  the  animal  be  kept  in  the  dip  from  two  to  four  minutes. 
Treatment  should  be  repeated  in  about  ten  days.  In  case 
of  infected  herds  and  until  the  disease  is  entirely  removed, 
dipping  should  be  repeated  twice  each  spring  and  fall.  The 
dip  should  be  used  quite  warm,  from  104  to  110  degrees  F. 

After  treatment  the  cattle  should  not  be  put  back  into 
infected  yards,  pens,  or  stables.  Such  inclosures  should  be 
either  thoroughly  disinfected  or  cattle  should  be  kept  out 
of  them  for  a  considerable  period.  For  detailed  information 
concerning  dipping  plants,  see  Nebraska  Station  Bulletin  74, 
North  Dakota  Station  Bulletin  61,  or  Bureau  of  Animal 
Industry  Bulletin  40. 

Either  of  the  following  preparations  may  be  used :  — 

(a)  Lime-and-sidphur  dip  is  an  old,  thoroughly  tried,  and 
reliable  treatment.  It  is  cheap  and  effective.  Directions 
should  be  followed  closely  as  given  undersheepscab,  page  118. 

(6)  Coal-tar  preparations  are  also  effective  for  cattle  mange 
when  used  according  to  official  standards  as  approved  by 
the  Federal  Bureau  of  Animal  Industry.  This  is  usually 
given  on  the  accompanying  directions. 

(c)  Engine  oil  and  sidphar,  as  given  for  horse  mange,  has 
been  reported  by  experienced  veterinarians  as  very  satis- 
factory for  use  as  a  wash.  The  use  of  this  preparation 
thus  far  reported  has  been  in  the  case  of  a  comparatively 
few  animals  for  hand  application  and  not  as  a  plunge  dip. 


LECTURE   XXVII 


PARASITES  — EXTERNAL    AND    INTERNAL 


Fig.  42.  —  Sheep  Tick  and  Enlarged 
Proboscis. 


Lice.  —  These  are  wingless  insects  classified  by  different 
authorities  into  two  or  three  very  different  families.  As  a 
rule  they  are  specific,  i.e.  a  certain  species  of  louse  is  para- 
sitic on  a  certain  species  of  bird  or  animal.  In  size, 
they  vary  from  mere  specks 
to  one  third  of  an  inch  in 
length. 

Lice  infest  especially 
certain  portions  of  the  body 
surface  of  each  animal, 
e.g.  for  cattle,  the  back; 
for  hogs,  back  of  the  ears; 
for  poultry,  the  fluff  and 
under  the  wings;  for  young 
chickens,  the  top  of  the 
head. 

Reproduction.  —  Lice  reproduce  by  eggs  (nits)  glued  to 
hairs  or  feathers.  The  eggs  are  very  light  in  color  and 
oval  in  shape. 

Treatment.  —  (1)  Bathe  the  affected  parts  with  corrosive 
sublimate  in  water,  15  grains  to  the  pint;  or  (2)  tobacco 
water  (steep  for  an  hour  2  oz.  of  tobacco  to  each  quart  of 
water);  or  (3)  for  small  surfaces,  as  mane  and  root  of  tail, 
kerosene  1  part,  linseed  oil  10  parts;  or  (4)  Professor  Riley's 
kerosene  emulsion  made  as  follows :  kerosene  2  gallons ;  soft 
soap  one  half  pound;  water  1  gallon.  Dissolve  tlie  soap  in 
water  by  boiling  and  add  kerosene  slowly  while  still  boiling. 
Churn  10  minutes  and  dilute  by  adding  8  times  its  bulk 
of  water.     This  is  cheap,  harmless,  and  satisfactory. 

125 


Melophagus    ovinus. 
louse. 


Properly    a    sheep 


126  VETERINARY    STUDIES 

Any  treatment  for  lice  should  be  repeated  several  times 
at  intervals  of  one  week.  It  is  frequently  ad\isable  to 
whitewash  stalls  and  sheds.  All  harboring  litter  should  be 
removed  and  burned.  Clipping  is  a  great  aid  in  the  treat- 
ment of  external  parasitism. 

It  is  difficult  to  treat  sheep  successfully  for  either  lice  or 
scab  without  shearing. 

For  cattle,  horses,  and  j^oung  stock,  in  cold  weather  dust 
into  the  hair  along  neck,  back,  and  rump,  Persian  insect 
powder,  or  use  solution  No.  4,  and  blanket  if  stable  is  cold. 
A  little  kerosene  oil  on  a  root,  fiber,  or  bristle  brush,  used 
frequently,  is  safe  and  effective  if  used  with  reasonable 
caution. 

For  -poultry  use  whitewash  in  abundance,  and  plenty  of 
fine,  air-slaked  lime  dusted  into  the  nests  and  on  the  floor. 
It  is  a  good  plan  to  throw  a  handful  at  a  time  against  the 
wall,  so  that  it  will  float  in  the  air  and  then  gradually  settle 
down  into  crevices  and  over  the  poultry.  Or  spray  kero- 
sene over  the  walls  and  ceiling  and  wash  perches  frequently 
with  kerosene.  This  is  cheap,  rapidly  applied,  and  very 
effective.  Give  constant  access  to  dust  bath  of  dust  or 
sifted  ashes,  air-slaked  lime,  sulphur,  and  Persian  insect 
powder.     Keep  poultry  house  dry. 

Flies.  —  At  times  flies  prove  a  serious  nuisance  for  do- 
mestic animals,  particularly  horses  and  cattle.  Various 
preparations  have  been  tried  at  various  experiment  stations 
with  fairly  satisfactory  results. 

No.  1.  Tested  and  reported  as  satisfactory  by  the  Ne- 
braska Experiment  Station :  — 

Oil  of  wood  tar  1  part;  neutral  oil  (a  petroleum  product) 
4  parts.  Mix  and  shake  thoroughly.  A  very  light  appli- 
cation of  this  should  be  made  by  brush  or  spray.  It  is 
occasionally  necessary  to  sponge  off  the  hair  with  a  cloth, 
using  a  little  of  the  neutral  oil  on  account  of  a  little  gum 
which  collects  with  repeated  application.  This  prepa- 
ration costs  at  wholesale  approximately  40  cents  per 
gallon. 


PARASITES 


127 


No.  2.  Was  selected  and  recommended  by  the  Kansas 
Experiment  Station  after  the  trial  of  several  preparations:  — 

One  and  one  half  parts  resin,  two  cakes  laundry  soap, 
one  half  pint  fish  oil,  water  to  make  3  gallons. 

This  should  be  well  mixed  and  applied  in  very  hght 
dressing  with  brush  or  spray.  If  used  as  spray,  one  half 
pint  of  kerosene  may  be  added. 

Ringworm  appears  most  commonly  on  heads  and  necks 
of  cattle,  especially  calves;  but  man  and  all  domestic  ani- 
mals are  also  subject.  It  is  caused  by  a  vegetable  parasite 
growing  in  the  skin,  somewhat  like 
mildew  in  a  grape  leaf.  This  dis- 
ease appears  in  the  form  of  round, 
raised,  and  bald  patches,  especially 
on  the  heads  and  necks  of  calves 
during  the  winter.  The  patches  Fig.  43.  — Horse  BotFly  and 
are  scaly  or  crusty,  an  inch  or  two  castrophHus^equi.  Larva  in 
across;   the  hairs  stand  erect,  then   the  third  stage.    See  internal 

11         Parasites,  page  128. 

split  and  break.     I  here  are  usually 

several    such    patches  close   together.      liingworm   spreads 

readily  by  inoculation.     It   is   not   especially  serious,   but 

disagreeable. 

Treatment.  —  Use  scrubbing  brush,  soap,  and  warm 
water;  then  apply  every  other  day  10  per  cent  carbolic 
acid  in  glycerine,  or  tincture  of  iodine  and  tincture  of  iron, 
equal  parts. 

Ticks.  —  Ticks  belong  to  the  same  general  class  as  mites, 
spiders,  etc.  (Arachnida).  They  are  temporary  parasites 
and  commonly  found  in  brush  and  tall  grass. 

Life  history.  —  The  young  female  crawls  up  on  brush  or 
grass  or  weeds  and  waits  for  some  animal  to  come  along  and 
brush  her  off.  She  soon  attaches  to  the  skin,  gorges  with 
blood,  and  drops  off.  After  a  few  days,  she  begins  laying 
several  thousand  eggs  and  then  soon  dies.  The  eggs  hatch 
in  15  to  20  days  if  conditions  are  favorable. 

Treatment.  —  Any  safe  oily  preparation  ma\^be  used  to 
destrov  ticks. 


c/'A 


128 


VETERINARY   STUDIES 


INTERNAL    PARASITES 

The  most  common  internal  parasites  are  roundworms, 
flatworms,   and  bots, 

Bots.  —  The  common  bot  of  the  horse's  stomach  is  the 
larva  form  of  the  horse  gadfly  or  botfly.  This  fly  is  com- 
monly observed  buzzing  around  horses  in  the  fall.  It  is 
about    the    size  of   a  common  honeybee.     The    botfly    re- 


FiG.  44.  —  Horse  Bots  and  Botfly. 

{B.A.I.) 

The  eggs  are  deposited   on   the  hairs  during 

the  fall.     They  are   taken  off   by  the  tongue  ; 

hatch   and   develop  in   the  stomach,   into   the 

bots  (larvae). 

produces  by  oval,  light  yellow  eggs  which  are  attached  by 
the  adult  fly  to  hairs  about  the  neck,  breast,  and  fore- 
arms. 

In  a  short  time  the  eggs  hatch,  and  the  small  larvae  or 
bots  escape.  Some  are  licked  ofT  and  thus  reach  the  stomach, 
where  they  attach  firmly  to  the  lining  by  small  hooks. 
They  remain  thus  in  the  stomach  about  10  months,  then 
pass  off  with  the  manure.  The  next  or  pupal  stage  lasts 
4  to  G  weeks  and  is  passed  in  the  ground.  After  this  the 
mature  fly  appears  ready  for  the  next  generation. 


PARASITES 


129 


Bots  rarely  do  any  serious  harm,  although  very  common. 

Medical  treatment  has  not  proven  satisfactory. 

Nematodes  {roundworms).  —  For  pin  worms,  which  inhabit 
the  rectum  in  horses,  empty  this  organ  by  means  of  warm 
water  injections  and  then  use  warm  rectal  injections  of 
astringent  and  bitter  medicines,  like  a  very  mild  solution 
of  copperas  or  a  strong  tea  made 
of  quassia  chips.  Repeat  once 
daily  for  2  or  3  days,  and  follow 
with  an  oily  phj^sic ;  e.g.  1  quart 
of  raw  linseed  oil. 

For  the  "  long  white  worms  " 
(6  to  12  inches  long)  affecting  the 
intestines  of  hoi'ses,  the  treatment 
must  be  vigorous  and  continued. 
Use  three  times  daily  either  (1) 
or  (2)  as  follows :  — 

(1)  Arsenious  acid  3  to  8  grains, 
three  times  a  day  for  10  days,  be- 
ginning with  the  smaller  dose  and 
increasing  gradually  to  the  larger. 
On  the  eleventh  day  give  linseed 
oil,  1  pint,  and  Croton  oil,  20  drops. 
Shake  well ;  the  arsenious  acid  to 
be  well  mixed  with  damp  food. 

Or  (2)  give  a  cathartic  of  1 
quart  of  linseed  oil,  feed  little  or 
no  haj^  for  4  days,  then  give  2  oz. 
of  turpentine  in  1  quart  linseed  oil 
on  the  fifth  day  and  repeat  on  the 
sixth.  Repeat  this  whole  process,  beginning  on  the  six- 
teenth day,  if  the  first  treatment  does  not  seem  effec- 
tive. 

Tapeworms    (flativorms).  —  These    are    most    serious    in 
sheep,  which  are  infested  by  at  least  eight  species. 

Treatment   can   only  be   useful  before   weakness  begins. 
For  large  lambs  and  yearlings,  give  no  food  the  night  before; 


Fig.    45.  —  A    Common    Tape- 
worm OF  Sheep.     (Curtice.) 
Tcenia  expaixsa. 

1.  Head  and  Neck.  A,  A, 
suckers ;  B,  B,  folds  in  neck  ; 
C,  C,  first  segments. 

2.  Head  and  body,  showing 
segments.    A,  head. 


130  VETERINARY  STUDIES 

then  give  each  in  the  morning  2  drams  of  ethereal  oil  of 
male  fern  in  2  to  4  oz.  castor  oil. 

Or  after  fasting,  give  to  each  sheep  powdered  areca  nut 
2  drams;  oil  of  male  fern  1  dram  in  4  oz.  of  sirup;  follow 
by  4  to  6  oz.  of  castor  oil  the  next  day.  For  older  sheep 
give  from  a  half  more  to  twice  these  doses. 

For  intestinal  worms  in  swine,  santonine  5  grain  dose, 
repeated  if  necessary,  or  25  drops  turpentine  three  times  a 
day. 


LECTURE  XXVIII 
NODULE   DISEASE   OF    SHEEP 

General  history.  —  The  history  of  outbreaks  is  often  as 
follows:  Sheep  have  access  during  the  summer  and  fall  to 
low  pastures  or  pond  or  well  water  that  receives  drainage 
from  a  sheep  yard  or  pasture.  Perhaps  the  grass  was  short 
and  the  flock  compelled  to  graze  very  close. 

During  the  winter  the  flock  becomes  unthrifty;  some 
individuals  grow  gradually  thinner  and  weaker  until  a 
number  die  during  the  late  winter  and  early  spring.  A 
dead  sheep  is  opened  and  the  intestines  show  on  the  sur- 
face a  large  number  of  nodules  about  the  size  of  garden 
peas.  As  loon  as  the  grass  comes  and  the  sheep  are  turned 
out  they  begin  to  do  better,  and  the  disease  seems  to  dis- 
appear. 

Cause.  —  The  disease  is  caused  by  a  minute  roundworm 
{Oesophagostoma  columbianum).  The  adult  worms  are  about 
three  quarters  of  an  inch  in  length  and  inhabit  the  intes- 
tines. The  immature  forms  vary  from  one  hundredth  to 
one  sixth  of  an  inch  in  length,  depending  on  development, 
and  exist  inside  of  the  little  nodules  which  constitute  the 
most  prominent  features  of  the  disease  as  seen  on  exami- 
nation post  mortem. 

The  eggs  are  laid  by  the  adult  female  in  the  intestme. 
There  is  some  question  concerning  the  life  history,  but 
either  the  eggs  soon  hatch  in  the  intestine  or  they  pass  out 
with  manure,  hatch  outside,  and  gain  entrance  as  embryos. 
In  either  case  the  embryo  worms  find  their  way  through 
the  internal  lining  of  the  intestine,  and  locate  in  the  bowel 
wall.     Here  they  give  rise  as  foreign  bodies  to  the  little 

131 


132  VETERINARY  STUDIES 

tumors  or  nodules  which  nature  throws  around  them,  evi- 
dently in  an  attempt  to  fence  them  in.  They  cause  irrita- 
tion as  foreign  bodies,  and  this  irritation  will  account  for 
the  little  tumors  which  are  found  on  the  side  of  the  intes- 
tine; i.e.  the  nodules. 

Some  of  the  eggs  and  adult  worms  pass  out  with  the 


Fig.  46.  —  Nodule  Dise.\se.     (.1/.  //,  /»'.) 
Intestines  of  sheep. 

manure,  and  thus  infect  the  pastures  and  feed  yards,  ponds, 
or  sluggish  streams  which  receive  their  drainage. 

Injury  done.  —  The  extent  of  injury  to  the  individual 
sheep  depends  mainly  upon  the  number  of  worms  present, 
and  the  condition  of  the  sheep  as  to  vitality  and  resisting 
power.  There  may  be  something  of  an  inflammation  of  the 
bowels  while  the  young  worms  are  passing  through  the  lining 
of  the  intestine,  but  the  main  injury  is  that  of  starvation. 
So  large  a  portion  of  the  bowel  is  affected  by  the  parasites 
when  the}^  are  present  in  great  number  that  there  is  not 
enough  healthy  tissue  to  absorb  the  food  material.     It  may 


NODULE   DISEASE   OF  SHEEP  133 

be  also  that  the  worms  excrete  poisonous  substances;  or 
their  presence  may  lead  indirectly  to  the  formation  of 
poisonous  materials  which  are  absorbed.  A  badly  infested 
sheep  may  have  plenty  of  good  food  and  yet  be  too  weak 
to  eat  it,  or  if  able  to  eat,  he  may  still  be  starving  because 
the  intestinal  wall  cannot  take  up  the  food  that  may  be 
ready  for  absorption. 

Older  sheep  suffer  worse,  as  a  rule,  because  the  longer  an 
infected  animal  lives,  the  worse  the  intestines  become  dis- 
eased by  the  parasites. 

Diagnosis.  —  This  disease  is  rare  among  range  sheep,  but 
rather  common  among  farm  sheep.  There  is  diarrhea, 
debility,  pallor  of  mucous  membranes,  and  emaciation. 
Diagnosis  can  only  be  made  certain  by  finding  the  charac- 
teristic nodules  in  an  examination  of  the  dead  animal,  for 
sheep  infested  with  some  other  parasitic  diseases  show 
similar  symptoms  and  conditions  during  life. 

Treatment.  —  It  is  probable  that  but  little  can  be  accom- 
plished by  medical  treatment,  because  the  worms,  during  a 
large  part  of  their  life  histor}',  are  walled  up  in  these  nodules 
and  beyond  the  reach  of  any  medical  agent. 

It  is  possible  that  worm-destroying  medicines,  like  those 
recommended  for  stomach  worms,  if  frequently  repeated 
during  the  summer,  might  prove  both  curative  and  pre- 
ventive, by  killing  the  adult  worms,  which  live  free  in  the 
intestine.  Pasture  infection  may  be  destroyed  by  plow- 
ing and  cropping  one  season.  Dr.  Dalrymple  and  others 
have  shown  that  lambs  may  suckle  the  diseased  dams  under 
certain  conditions  and  usually  remain  free  from  infection. 
This  is  accomplished  by  what  is  known  as  the  bare-lot 
method.  Under  this  system  lambs  are  not  allowed  access 
to  any  pasture  that  can  possibly  have  been  contaminated 
by  the  older  sheep. 

The  bare-lot  method  provides  that  ewes  and  lambs  must 
be  kept  in  a  lot  that  is  bare  of  any  grass  or  weeds  which 
sheep  may  eat.  This  lot  must  be  rather  smooth  and  drain 
promptly  and  without  standing  pools  after  rain.     No  graz- 


134  VETERINARY   STUDIES 

ing  for  the  older  sheep  is  permitted,  the  flock  being  fed  on 
soiling  crops  and  whatever  grain  may  be  necessary.  Fresh, 
clean  water  must  be  provided.  Food  and  water  must  be 
given  in  such  a  way  that  they  cannot  possibly  be  con- 
taminated from  the  ground ;  food  that  falls  out  of  the  racks 
must  be  raked  up  rather  frequently. 

Ewe  lambs  to  be  kept  in  the  flock  should  be  raised  with 
special  care  to  avoid  trouble  the  next  season  from  chance 
infection  that  occurs  to  such  lambs  from  the  bare  lot.  By 
this  method  the  lambs  may  run  with  the  diseased  ewes  until 
weaning  time  with  comparatively  slight  risk  of  infection. 
In  dealing  with  a  serious  outbreak  of  this  disease  it  should 
be  remembered  that  infested  flocks  usually  do  fairly  well 
during  the  summer  and  early  fall  months.  If  a  flock  is 
badly  infested  with  nodule  disease,  it  will  generally  prove 
good  management  to  nurse  the  flock  through  until  spring, 
then  depend  on  getting  the  sheep  into  shape  for  market 
during  the  summer,  and  sell  out  for  butcher  stock  in  the 
early  fall.  Such  sheep  are  entirely  fit  for  food  purposes 
when  in  good  flesh. 

Prevention.  —  New  sheep  should  be  purchased  from  a 
flock  that  has  been  thrifty  during  two  previous  late  winters 
and  early  springs,  and  they  should  be  kept  for  two  seasons 
on  some  other  pasture  than  the  one  previously  used  on  the 
infected  farm.  It  will  be  better  still  if  the  flock  can  be 
kept  part  of  the  season  on  pasture  and  part  of  the  season 
on  plowed  crops;  e.g.  rape,  sorghum,  field  peas,  or  meadow 
land  that  has  not  recently  been  used  for  sheep  pasture. 
The  new  flock  must  not  be  allowed  to  drink  from  any  pond 
or  sluggish  stream  that  has  received  drainage  from  the  in- 
fested pasture  or  barnyard. 

With  a  view  to  preventing  this  and  other  parasitic  dis- 
eases, the  flock  should  not  be  kept  too  long  on  one  pasture, 
but  should  be  moved  from  pasture  to  pasture;  and  from 
pasture  to  stubble  fields,  cut-over  meadow,  rape,  etc. 
Sluggish  streams  and  ponds  should  be  regarded  with  sus- 
picion always. 


NODULE  DISEASE   OF  SHEEP  135 

It  is  possible  to  practically  rid  a  flock  from  this  disease  by 
following  this  course  of  shifting  the  flock  about  for  several 
years,  plowing  up  pastures  occasionally,  and  using  plowed 
crops.  The  infectiousness  of  pastures  has  been  shown  by 
careful  experiment  in  which  infected  sheep  were  placed  on 
small  pastures  during  a  season  and  then  during  the  next 
season  sheep  were  kept  on  this  same  pasture  which  were 
previously  free  from  nodule  disease.  Rapid  infection  of 
the  second  flock  was  secured  in  this  way.  The  disease 
spreads  from  ewes  to  pasture  and  from  pasture  to  lamb. 


LECTURE  XXIX 
STOMACH   WORMS    (SHEEP) 

The  stomach  worm  is  one  of  the  especially  common  and 
serious  parasites  of  sheep,  and  this  means  much,  for  para- 
sitic diseases  of  sheep  are  the  serious 
ones.  This  parasite  is  very  wide- 
spread. It  affects  sheep  of  all  ages 
and  young  cattle,  but  especially 
lambs.  Older  sheep  showing  no 
symptoms  are  the  ones  usually  to 
blame  for  spreading  the  disease. 

The  parasite  (Hcemotichus  con- 
tortus)  which  causes  this  trouble  is 
a  small,  threadlike  worm,  perhaps 
an  inch  in  length  and  so  slender 
that  it  must  be  looked  for  carefully 
or  one  is  liable  to  miss  it.  The  indi- 
vidual worms  are  somewhat  twisted 
and  are  found  in  the  fourth  stom- 
ach. Frequently  they  are  in  motion. 
If  they  are  present  in  great  numbers, 
the  stomach  contents  near  the  mu- 
FiG.  47.  cous    membrane    may    seem    to     be 

Y.mhxyooiHxmonchuscon.    f.^jj-jy    ^Uvc     and    SQuirming.      The 

tortus  coiled  on  tip  of  grass  ^  ^•   ^  ^• 

blade.    Enlarged  100  times,    worms   Vary   from   rcddish   to   dirty 

(Ransom,    B.  A.  I.,    Circular     white  ill  Color. 

Life     history.  —  This     parasite    is 
present  in  the  stomach  at  all  times  of  the  year. 

The  eggs  are  passed  off  in  the  feces  and  reach  the  en- 
sheathed  embryo  stage  in  from  ten  days  to  two  weeks 
when  conditions  of  temperature  and  moisture  are  suitable. 

136 


STOMACH   WORMS   (SHEEP)  137 

Eggs  and  newly  hatched  embryos  are  very  sensitive  to 
freezing  or  drying,  and  easily  die  under  these  conditions. 
Ensheathed  eml^ryos  are  ver}'  resistant.  We  cannot  de- 
pend on  their  natural  destruction  in  much  less  than  a  year. 
They  have  been  shown  to  be  capable  of  infection  after 
several  months. 

When  the  atmosphere  is  moist,  embryos  leave  the  manure 
or  earth  and  crawl  up  the  moistened  blades  of  grass  or 
similar  objects,  climbing  only  while  there  is  moisture.  If 
now  they  are  swallowed  by  a  suitable  host,  the  embryo 
continues  development  for  about  three  weeks,  at  which  time 
the  females  may  begin  to  produce  eggs. 

Symptoms.  —  There  are  no  diagnostic  symptoms  by 
which  this  disease  can  be  distinguished  from  other  internal 
parasitic  diseases  of  sheep.  There  is  a  gradually  develop- 
ing weakness  and  unthrift.  Lambs  are  affected  more  seri- 
ously than  older  sheep.  These  are  usually  unthrifty  during 
the  late  summer,  and  some  die  during  the  late  summer  and 
fall.  The  most  common  and  evident  symptoms  are  pallor, 
loss  of  flesh,  and  weakness.  The  appetite  is  variable; 
affected  sheep  are  usually  dull,  listless,  and  often  have  un- 
usual thirst  and  diarrhea.  There  frequently  appear  swell- 
ings under  the  jaw. 

To  make  a  certain  diagnosis  it  is  usually  necessary  to 
examine  the  carcass  of  sheep  recently  dead  or  kill  a  sick 
one  for  this  purpose.  Examine  very  carefully  the  fourth 
stomach.  If  this  stomach  is  opened  at  the  top  and  con- 
tents allowed  to  rest  quietly,  the  stomach  worms,  if  present 
in  sufficient  numbers  to  cause  trouble,  will  be  seen  in  quite 
active  motion,  wiggling  about  like  tiny  snakes.  They  may 
sometimes  be  found  in  very  large  numbers  close  to  the 
lining  membrane  as  slender  worms  varying  from  one  half 
to  about  one  inch  in  length. 

Management  of  infected  flocks.  —  An  infected  pasture 
may  be  safe  after  a  year  if  there  has  been  no  use  by  sheep 
in  the  interval.  Burning  over  a  pasture  is  very  efficient 
for  the  ground  actually  burned  over. 


138  VETERINARY  STUDIES 

In  dealing  with  an  infected  flock,  we  may  treat  both  the 
lambs  and  their  mothers  early  in  the  season ;  the  death  loss 
may  thus  be  prevented  or  very  greatly  reduced,  and  the 
lambs  do  much  better.  It  should  be  c!3ar  that  there  is  no 
way  of  certainly  and  rapidly  eradicating  stomach  worms 
from  a  diseased  flock.  The  rational  hope  lies  in  reduction 
and  gradual  eradication. 

One  of  our  best  authorities  ^  who  has  been  working  on 
this  problem  for  years  advises  that  all  sheep  be  given  proper 
medical  treatment  in  March  and  put  on  the  safest  pasture 
available.  Pasture  No.  1.  In  July  the  entire  flock  is  treated 
again  and  moved  to  Pasture  or  Field  No.  2.  In  November 
they  are  given  a  third  treatment  and  moved  to  Pasture  or 
Field  No.  3,  where  they  may  remain  until  March.  In 
March  of  the  second  year  they  are  placed  in  Pasture  or 
Field  No.  4.  In  July  they  are  returned  to  Pasture  No.  1. 
In  November  they  are  given  medical  treatment  and  moved 
to  Pasture  or  Field  No.  2.  Here  they  remain  until  March 
of  the  third  year,  when  they  go  to  Pasture  or  Field  No.  3. 

During  the  intervals  between  sheep  occupancy,  pastures 
may  be  used  by  horses  or  hogs,  but  not  cattle  unless  they 
are  treated  like  the  sheep  and  moved  with  the  sheep. 

Medical  treatment  is  given  only  once  a  year,  and  late  iii 
the  fall  after  the  first  year. 

Climates  and  seasons  would  necessitate  some  modifica- 
tions of  this  plan  to  suit  conditions. 

Medical  treatment.  —  Sheep  intended  for  medical  treat- 
ment should  have  no  feed  during  12  to  24  hours  before  the 
medicine  is  given.  No  matter  which  treatment  is  to  be 
given,  it  should  be  tried  on  a  few  sheep  before  treating  a 
very  large  number. 

The  Bureau  of  Animal  Industry  has  done  some  careful 
experimenting  in  this  line,  and  recommends  coal-tar  creosote 
as  a  satisfactory  treatment.  This  medicine  is  not  expen- 
sive and  is  very  easily  obtained  and  prepared.  It  is  im- 
portant to  insist  upon  getting  coal-tar  creosote,  not  beech- 
'  Ransome,  B.  A.  I.,  Circular  157. 


STOMACH  WORMS   (SHEEP)  139 

wood  creosote,  which  is  ordinarily  dispensed.  Coal-tar 
creosote  is  cheaper  and  more  satisfactory.  It  is  given  as  a 
1  per  cent  solution;  i.e.  1  oz.  of  the  creosote  to  99  oz.  of 
water  in  doses  proportioned  to  the  age  and  size  of  the  sheep. 
Lambs  4  months  old  take  2  to  4  oz.  Older  sheep  take  3 
to  5  oz.  If  there  is  any  reason  to  suspect  the  presence  of 
worms  in  the  intestines,  then  thymol  should  be  added  to 
the  creosote  treatment.  The  dose  of  thymol  is  from  30  to 
100  grains.  Each  dose  of  thymol  is  to  be  added  to  the  dose 
of  creosote  after  the  latter  has  been  mixed  and  measured, 
and  should  then  be  given  immediately.  Only  fresh  crystal- 
lized thymol  should  be  accepted. 

Bluestone  (copper  sulphate)  has  been  accepted  as  one  of 
the  most  satisfactory  treatments  for  this  trouble,  but  it 
needs  to  be  given  in  carefully  regulated  doses.  This  medi- 
cine mav  be  made  up  as  follows:  Dissolve  1  lb.  (avoirdu- 
pois) of"  fresh  powdered  bluestone  in  9  gallons  of  water. 
For  this  treatment  the  animal  must  be  kept  off  feed  from 
20  to  24  hours.  The  dose  for  a  lamb  6  months  old  is  40  c.c. ; 
sheep  12  months  old,  60  c.c.  (about  2  oz.);  18  months, 
80  c.c;  2  years,  90  c.c.  When  the  bluestone  treatment  is 
used,  sheep  should  receive  no  water  on  the  day  ih^t  they 
are  treated,  either  before  or  after  treatment. 

Gasoline  has  been  much  used  in  recent  years  and  with 
good  results.  It  is  cheap,  easily  obtained,  and  easily  given. 
Gasohne  treatment  should  be  repeated  on  three  successive 
days.  Sheep  should  be  given  the  gasoline  about  ten  o  clock 
in  the  morning,  having  received  no  feed  since  at  least  the 
evening  before -24  hours'  fasting  is  better.  Three  hours 
after  treatment  they  are  given  feed  and  water.  Then  m 
the  evening  thev  are  put  up  again  without  feed  or  water 
and  given  a  second  treatment  the  next  day  about  10  A.M., 
and  again  on  the  third  day,  following  the  same  procedure. 
Each  dose  for  the  3  days  is  measured  separately  and  given 
in  hnseed  oil  or  milk,  but  not  water. 

Larc^e  lambs  take  about  2  to  3  teaspoonfuls ;  sheep  and 
calves'take  about  1  tablespoonful.  Enough  gasoline  should 
be  given  to  produce  shght  intoxication. 


140  VETERINARY   STUDIES 

Drenching  sheep.  —  For  giving  medicine  to  sheep,  a 
drenching  tube  should  be  used  or  a  large  piston  syringe, 
or  a  long-necked  bottle.  A  very  satisfactory  drenching 
tube  may  be  easily  made  with  an  ordinary  tin  funnel,  which 
is  inserted  into  one  end  of  a  rubber  hose  about  3  feet  long 
and  about  one  half  inch  in  diameter.  A  piece  of  brass  or 
iron  tubing  4  to  6  inches  long  is  inserted  into  the  other 
end  of  the  tube.  The  metal  tube  is  placed  in  the  animal's 
mouth  between  the  back  teeth;  the  funnel  end  is  held  at  a 
convenient  height  and  medicine  poured  slowly  into  it.  It 
is  better  to  give  the  medicine  with  the  sheep  standing  on 
its  feet,  because  actual  experiment  has  demonstrated  that 
while  the  animal  is  in  this  position  more  of  the  medicine 
goes  directly  to  the  fourth  stomach,  where  it  is  needed.  The 
head  must  be'  raised  not  too  high  —  not  higher  than  level 
face;  otherwise  there  is  danger  of  passing  medicine  into  the 
lungs. 

Prevention.  —  Sick  animals  must  be  killed  or  removed 
from  the  flock  and  confined  where  there  is  no  drainage  to 
the  pasture  or  yard  used  by  other  sheep  or  cattle.  Water 
should  be  taken  from  wells  that  do  not  receive  surface 
drainage  from  large  lakes  or  from  running  streams,  although 
stagnant  pools  are  probably  not  so  dangerous  in  this  con- 
nection as  commonly  supposed.  The  tank  or  trough  should 
be  high  enough  so  that  the  water  cannot  possibly  be  con- 
taminated from  droppings.  High  and  well-drained  pasture 
is  always  safer  than  low  pastures  so  far  as  internal  parasites 
in  general  are  concerned.  Infected  pastures  should  be 
burned  over  thoroughly  and  regularly  for  the  purpose  of 
destroying  eggs  and  young  worms. 

It  should  be  borne  in  mind  that  when  animals  are  well 
fed  and  well  nourished,  they  are  better  able  to  resist  the  in- 
vasion of  any  parasite. 


c  Y ,      -«^s  ^ 


LECTURE  XXX 

VERMINOUS    BRONCHITIS.    NASAL    GRUB.    AND 
CATARRH 

VERMINOUS   BRONCHITIS 

Cause.  —  This  is  a  disease  of  the  bronchial  tubes  and 
lungs,  caused  by  special  species  of  minute  roundworms. 
The  worms  are  similar  in  different  domestic  animals,  but 
€ach  animal  has  its  own  species.  They  var}'  from  about 
one  to  three  inches  in  length  and  are  white  or  reddish  to 
brown  in  color.  There  is  therefore  little  danger  of  infec- 
tion from  one  kind  of  domestic  animals  to  another.  Sheep, 
goats,  cattle,  and  pigs  are  subject  to  this  disease.  Older 
animals  may  be  seriously  affected,  but  more  frequently 
carry  the  parasite  without  evident  injury. 

Life  history.  —  The  mature  worms,  eggs,  and  embr3'os 
are  all  found  in  the  bronchial  tubes.  These  may  be  coughed 
out,  and  many  ultimately  reach  pools  or  small  ponds  of 
stagnant  water.  The  larvae  are  usually  swallowed  with  the 
food  or  drink,  and  some  of  them  ultimately  reach  the  trachea, 
probably  by  way  of  the  larynx.  It  is  possible  that  the  eggs 
or  dried  embryos  may  be  inhaled  directly  with  particles  of 
dust.  Infection  occurs  mainly  in  the  spring.  The  para- 
sitism remains  long  dormant,  slowly  developing  until  fall. 
The  disease  seems  to  be  especially  common  in  dry  years,  or 
in  wet  years  following  dry  years.  Embryos  and  eggs  are 
very  resistant  and  tenacious  of  life  at  all  stages.  Some 
species  have  been  shown  to  survive  for  months  as  embryos 
in  water  or  moist  earth.  If  dried  at  certain  stages  of  de- 
velopment, the  embryos  may  revive  in  moisture  after  a 
year.     This  explains  the  tendency  of  verminous  bronchitis 

141 


142 


VETERINARY   STUDIES 


to  appear  in  dry  seasons,  or  in  wet  seasons  following  dry 
seasons. 

Symptoms.  —  At  first  there  is  a  bronchial  catarrh;  later 
a  chronic  anaemia  and  pallor  with  progressive  loss  of  flesh 
and  strength  and  with  shortness  of  breath.  There  is  a 
cough  which  at  first  is  rather  harsh,  and  later  very  weak. 
The  cough  is  worse  when  animals  are  excited  and  when  they 
move  round.  Sometimes  small  balls  composed  mainly  of 
w^orms  may  be  coughed  out  and  actually  seen.  Respiration 
is  difficult  and  in  some  cases  wheezing.  Calves  are  able  to 
resist  rather  longer  than  sheep. 


Fig.  48.  —  Sheep  Gadfly  (CEstrus  ovis). 
Commonly  called  "  nasal  grub."     a,  Adult ;  b,  larva  ;  c,  pupariura. 

On  examination  post  mortem  there  may  be  found  masses 
of  minute  threadlike  worms  in  the  trachea  and  In-onchial 
tubes,  with  a  considerable  quantity  of  purulent  and  viscid 
liquid  in  the  tubes.  Some  lobules  of  the  lungs  may  show 
very  marked  pneumonia.  There  may  also  be  tubercles  re- 
sembling those  of  tuberculosis,  near  the  surface  of  the 
lungs,  and  also  throughout  the  lung  substance. 

Treatment.  —  For  the  present  we  must  consider  this  as 
generally  doubtful  of  success.  Treatment  by  injection  of 
medicines  directly  into  the  trachea  has  been  tried  and 
recommended  in  some  cases,  but  is  very  apt  to  prove  un- 


VERMINOUS  BRONCHITIS  143 

satisfactory.     In  cases  of  valuable  sheep  the  following  is 
worth  trial :  — 

Olive  oil,  100  grams. 

Turpentine,  100  grams. 

CarboUc  acid,  2  grams. 

Give  10  grams  per  day  for  3  days.  Each  dose  is  given 
by  a  large  hypodermic  syringe  and  injected  directly  into 
the  trachea. 

Benzine  has  been  tried  and  reported  successful  by  several. 
Inject  about  1  dram  (1  teaspoonful)  slowly  into  the  trachea. 
Use  an  ordinary  hypodermic  syringe  and  inject  directly 
through  the  side  of  the  trachea  between  two  rings.  The 
sheep  must  be  held  flat  on  the  side  at  the  time  of  injection 
and  for  five  minutes  afterward,  and  with  the  head  as  low 
as  possible.  It  would  be  wise  to  treat  but  a  few  sheep  at 
first  and  note  results. 

Prevention.  —  Change  pastures  often ;  keep  sheep  upon 
forage  crops  and  upon  frequently  changed  pastures.  Avoid 
ponds  and  well  water  which  receives  drainage  from  pastures, 
feed  lots,  or  barnyards. 

NASAL    GRUB    (GRUB    IN    THE    HEAD) 

This  is  a  very  poor  name  for  a  disease,  but  is  the  only  one 
commonly  understood  and  is  used  here  for  that  reason. 

Cause.  —  This  disease  is  caused  by  a  parasite  {CEstrus 
ovis)  which  inhabits  the  various  cavities  of  the  head  which 
communicate  with  the  nasal  chambers.     See  Fig.  48. 

Life  history.  —  The  mature  fly  resembles  the  well-known 
botfly  of  the  horse,  is  of  a  dirty  yellow  or  grayish  yellow 
color,  and  appears  in  the  middle  of  the  day  from  July  to 
September.  The  young  larvse  are  deposited  about  the  nos- 
trils of  the  sheep,  from  whence  they  crawl  up  into  the  various 
cavities  of  the  head,  including  the  horn  cores,  and  may 
even  reach  the  brain  substance.  They  mature  in  about  nine 
months.  The  developed  grubs  work  out,  escaping  from  the 
nose  during  the  spring,  from  INIarch  to   May.     They    then 


144  VETERINARY   STUDIES 

pass  through  another  stage  before  the  adult  fly  appears, 
which  occurs  in  six  or  seven  weeks  from  the  time  the  grubs 
escape  from  the  nose. 

Symptoms.  —  A  few  larvae  may  not  cause  any  evident 
disturbance.  When  present  in  the  head  sinuses  in  larger 
numbers,  the  parasites  cause  great  irritation  with  marked 
catarrhal  discharge  from  the  nostrils,  especially  in  the 
spring.  The  affected  animals  may  refuse  to  eat  well  and 
even  cough.  The  sheep  sneeze,  shake  their  heads,  and  rub 
their  noses  and  faces  against  their  feet  or  other  objects; 
sometimes  there  are  attacks  of  vertigo,  and  the  walk  may 
be  unsteady  or  irregular;  severe  cases  develop  convulsions 
and  die.  On  examination  post  mortem,  grubs  are  found  in 
the  various  openings  and  chambers  of  the  head,  and  the 
mucous  mem.brane  lining  these  cavities  is  inflamed. 

Treatment.  —  Medical  treatment  under  ordinary  circum- 
stances is  not  practical,  and  prevention  is  very  difficult  to 
apply  on  a  large  scale.  Before  the  sheep  are  turned  out 
in  the  morning  their  noses  may  be  smeared  with  tar  or  a 
mixture  of  tar,  turpentine,  and  fish  oil.  They  may  be 
forced  to  take  their  salt  through  a  large  hole  bored  in  a  log 
or  a  plank,  the  tar  being  smeared  around  the  edges  of  the 
hole  so  that,  when  the  sheep  take  their  salt,  they  get  a  little 
tar  around  the  nose  and  mouth. 


CATARRH   IN    SHEEP 

Causes.  —  Catarrh  in  sheep  is  so  frequently  associated 
with  nasal  grub  that  it  seems  best  to  insert  a  brief  men- 
tion of  it  in  this  connection. 

Simple  catarrh  in  sheep  is  usually  due  to  cold  rains,  im- 
perfect ventilation  and  damp  quarters,  or  undue  exposure 
after  early  shearing.  In  other  words,  it  is  simply  a  case  of 
catching  cold.  Many  cases  of  catarrh  are  due  to  parasitic 
invasion  of  the  nasal  chambers  and  head  sinuses.  Simple 
catarrh  is  not  contagious,  although  many  cases  may  appear 
simultaneously,  due  to  common  causes. 


CATARRH   IN   SHEEP  145 

Symptoms.  —  The  affected  sheep  are  noticed  to  be  sneez- 
ing, with  discharge  from  the  nose  and  eyes,  and  sometimes 
coughing.  The  nasal  discharge  is  thin  at  first,  gradually 
becoming  thicker.  Some  cases  become  chronic,  and  es- 
pecially when  the  subjects  are  weak  and  unthrifty.  The 
inflammation  of  the  nasal  mucous  membrane  may  then 
extend  into  the  head  sinuses,  and  cause  extensive  collec- 
tions of  pus,  and  also  extend  down  the  mucous  membrane 
lining  the  trachea. 

Prevention.  —  First  of  all,  aburidant  ventilation  at  all 
seasons.  Sheep  are  very  frequently  housed  too  closely  in 
winter.  The  interior  of  the  building  becomes  very  damp, 
and  the  conditions  in  general  are  unwholesome.  Healthy 
sheep  do  not  need  much  protection  in  the  winter-time,  so 
far  as  warmth  is  concerned.  If  they  are  well  protected 
from  cold  rains  and  snows  and  from  cold  winds,  the}"  are 
most  thrifty  with  abundant  ventilation.  Sheep  that  are 
shorn  early  in  the  spring  need  careful  management  for  a 
time  in  order  to  prevent  their  catching  cold. 

Treatment.  —  The  sick  animals  must  have  shelter.  Their 
quarters  must  be  dry,  reasonably  warm,  and  well  ventilated. 
They  must  be  well  fed.  The  medicinal  treatment  should 
consist  mainly  of  tonics;  for  instance,  a  simple,  bitter 
vegetable  tonic,  like  gentian  root,  which  may  be  given  in  a 
powdered  form  in  the  feed  tw^o  or  three  times  daily,  — -^^d^out 
one  dram  per  sheep. 


INFECTIOUS   DISEASES 

LECTURE  XXXI 
ACTINOMYCOSIS   OR   LUMPY   JAW 

Definition.  —  This  disease  is  commonly  called  either 
lumpy  jaw  or  bighead.  It  is  characterized  by  the  develop- 
ment of  peculiar  enlargements,  usually  around  the  head. 
The  disease  may  also  affect  internal  organs. 

The  tumors  and  abscesses  which  characterize  this  disease 
probably  have  a  common  origin,  being  due  to  the  presence 
and  activity  of  a  vegetable  organism  known  as  actinomyces. 
When  these  abscesses  are  opened,  there  is  usually  found,  in 
the  interior,  pus  containing  minute  yellow  or  white  grains, 
sometimes  very  abundant.  These  small  grains  may  be 
bedded  in  the  diseased  soft  tissues  of  the  tumors.  Seen 
under  a  microscope,  this  fungus  under  certain  conditions 
seems  to  be  composed  of  radiating  club-shaped  particles. 
As  the  fungus  multiplies  and  spreads,  the  tumor  growths  in- 
crease. The  tumors  are  usually  very  firm  on  account  of  the 
large  amount  of  connective  tissue  which  they  contain. 
The  interior  of  the  tumor  is  usually  somewhat  honey- 
combed with  the  fungus  colonies  in  the  spaces.  Animals 
affected  are  chiefly  cattle,   horses,   and  sheep. 

Relation  to  public  health.  —  Human  beings  are  evidently 
susceptible  to  inoculation  from  this  disease,  but  as  the 
affected  parts  of  diseased  carcasses  are  not  commonly  used 
as  articles  of  human  food,  and  animal  meats  as  a  rule  are 
cooked  before  being  eaten,  there  is  ordinarily  comparatively 
slight  danger  for  human  beings.  The  government  meat  in- 
spection regulations  pass  carcasses  which  are  but  slightly 
and  locally  diseased,  and  condemn  those  which  are  exten- 
sively and  generally  diseased. 

146 


ACTINOMYCOSIS  OR  LUMPY  JAW 


147 


Parts  involved.  —  These  are  commonl}'  the  bones  of  the 
upper  and  lower  jaws,  the  soft  tissues  between  the  two 
branches  of  the  lower  jaw,  and  the  tongue.  These  are  the 
external  or  superficial  portions  of  the  body  most  commonh' 
affected.  This  disease  sometimes  affects  the  lungs  and 
other  internal  organs,  and  might  be  mistaken  for  tuberculosis. 
The  lung  s^'mptoms,  as  seen  on  examination  post  mortem, 
vary  so  much  that  it  is  rather  difficult  to  describe  them. 


Fig.  49.  —  Actinomycosis  —  Lumpy  Jaw.     {M.H.R.) 
Note  the  enlarged  jaw  and  the  raw,  granulating  tissue  exposed. 

Sometimes  the  lungs  resemble  those  seen  in  ordinary  broncho- 
pneumonia. In  other  cases  considerable  areas  of  the  lung 
tissue  are  changed  to  a  gra}'  mass,  soft  to  the  touch.  In 
still  other  cases  there  are  developed  distinct  abscesses. 

This  disease  is  usually  of  slow  development.  A  small 
swelling  appears  somewhere  about  the  head,  perhaps  under 
the  tongue;  or  the  bones  of  the  face  near  the  teeth  begin 
to  bulge  slightly  outward  and  the  enlargements  continue 
very  slowly.     The  animal  may  remain  thrifty  for  a  long 


148  VETERINARY  STUDIES 

time,  or  indeed  until  the  disease  involves  the  teeth,  tongue, 
or  other  organs  and  interferes  directly  with  nutrition. 

Prevention.  —  There  is  so  little  known  concerning  the  life 
history  of  the  parasite  and  the  methods  of  infection  that  a 
study  of  prevention  can  be  only  partially  satisfactory.  It 
is  generally  agreed  that  animals  develop  lump}^  jaw  only 
after  inoculation,  i.e.  the  germs  find  entrance  through  some 
cut  or  scratch  in  the  skin;  through  the  mucous  membrane 
of  the  mouth  on  account  of  diseased  teeth ;  or  through  some 
abrasion  of  the   mucous   membrane  of  the  mouth,  gullet, 


Fig.  50.  —  Actinomycosis.     {M.H.R.) 
Inferior  maxilla  of  cow  shown  in  Fig.  49. 

or  stomach.  It  is  also  generally  agreed  that  the  parasite 
is  usually  taken  in  with  the  food.  It  is  possible  that  this 
parasite  may  live  through  one  stage  of  its  development,  or 
even  multiply,  upon  the  surface  or  in  the  tissues  of  some 
of  the  common  fodder  plants,  particularly  barley  and  r^^e. 
An  animal  with  a  discharging  abscess  about  the  head 
would  of  course  infect  food  in  mangers,  feeding  troughs,  and 
grass  in  the  pasture ;  thus  offering  abundant  opportunities 
for  infection.  Pastures  wherein  cases  of  lumpy  jaw  seem 
to  develop  rather  commonly  should  be  placed  under  culti- 
vation or  avoided.  Animals  with  discharging  abscesses 
should  be  killed  or  confined. 


ACTINOMYCOSIS  OR  LUMPY  JAW 


149 


Treatment.  —  There  are  three  possible  Hues  of  treatment : 
surgical,  caustic,  and  internal  medication. 

Surgical  treatment.  —  This  should  be  undertaken  only  by 
a  trained  veterinarian,  on  account  of  the  large  blood  vessels 
and  other  important  structures  involved. 

Caustic.  —  Dr.  Detmers,  formerly  of  the  Ohio  Experiment 
Station,  described  several  years  ago  a  method  of  local 
treatment,  in  which  he  proposed  to  remove  the  tumor  by 


Fig.  51  — Actinomycosis.     (M.H.R.) 
A  badly  diseased  upper  jaw. 


the  deeply  caustic  action  of  powdered  arsenic.  He  reported 
a  large  number  of  cases  treated  with  satisfactory  results. 
His  method  was  essentially  as  follows:  — 

The  Viet  hod  is  simple.  One  half  ounce  of  powdered  arse- 
nious  acid  is  added  to  two  drams  of  caustic  potash,  one  half 
ounce  of  powdered  gum  arable,  and  one  ounce  of  distilled 
water.  This  makes  a  thick,  sirupy  mass.  The  mixture  is 
kept  in  a  wide-mouthed  bottle  and  labeled  "  Poison." 
Take  a  small  stick  of  hard  wood  and  sharpen  it  to  a  point 
somewhat  resembling  the  dulled  blade  of  a  dagger,  the 
tapering  end  being  made  as  smooth  as  possible.  An  incision 
is  made  into  the  abscess  pocket,  or  into  the  interior  of  the 
tumor,  as  the  case  may  be.  Then  by  means  of  this  piece 
of  wood  shove  in  small  masses  of  absorbent  cotton,  carry- 
ing as  much  as  possible  of  the  arsenic  paste.     These  wads 


150  VETERINARY   STUDIES 

of  cotton  are  placed  quite  deep  in  the  substance  of  the 
tumor.  If  the  stick  is  smooth  enough,  it  will  usually  draw 
out  and  leave  the  cotton ;  if  not,  the  cotton  can  be  shoved 
off  the  end  by  the  use  of  another  small  stick.  From  two 
to  six  of  these  pieces  of  cotton  are  inserted  into  the  cavity. 
Within  a  few  days  the  tumor  swells  considerably.  Later 
on  a  large  surface  seems  to  become  insensitive,  the  tissues 
having  been  destroyed  by  the  arsenic.  Finally  this  dead 
mass  separates  and  sloughs  out. 

The  time  required  for  the  complete  removal  in  this  w^ay 
varies  from  six  to  ten  weeks,  but  this  operation  has  the  ad- 
vantage of  requiring  but  one  treatment.  This  method  is  of 
course  applicable  in  cases  where  only  soft  tissues  are  dis- 
eased. The  writer  has  tried  this  method  with  satisfactory 
results;  the  only  objection,  and  that  seemed  to  be  quite  a 
serious  one,  was  that  so  much  time  was  required  for  com- 
plete removal.  It  should  not  be  forgotten  that  while  the 
slough  is  separating,  the  wound  may  become  infected  with 
maggots. 

Internal  medication.  —  This  treatment  is  by  the  internal 
use  of  iodide  of  potash,  which  is  given  by  the  mouth  either 
as  a  drench  or  dissolved  in  the  drinking  water.  Very  many 
cases  may  be  treated  with  a  good  prospect  of  success  in  this 
way. 

The  dose  limit  is  about  one  fourth  dram  per  one  hundred 
pounds  live  weight.  Each  dose  is  dissolved  in  from  one 
half  to  a  pint  of  water  and  given  as  a  drench  or  dissolved  in 
the  drinking  water.  This  dose  is  given  once  daily  until  the 
animal  seems  to  get  off  feed  and  discharges  freely  from  the 
eyes  and  nose,  indicating  something  of  a  catarrhal  disturb- 
ance of  these  mucous  membranes.  These  conditions  indi- 
cate that  the  treatment  should  be  discontinued  for  three  or 
four  days.  During  this  period  a  mild  cathartic  of  epsom 
salts  should  be  given,  about  one  pound  to  1000  pounds  live 
weight.  .This  should  be  dissolved  in  water  and  given  as  a 
drench.  The  iodide  treatment  may  then  be  continued  for 
another  period  of  six  to  ten  days,  when  it  may  be  necessary 


ACTINOMYCOSIS  OR  LUMPY  JAW  151 

to  discontinue  again  and  give  another  dose  of  epsom  salts. 
Treatment  should  be  continued  until  the  tumor  is  reduced 
to  about  one  third  of  its  original  size;  it  may  then  be  dis- 
continued. 

The  time  required  for  successful  treatment  in  suitable 
cases  varies  from  four  to  seven  weeks.  It  is  not  advisable 
to  undertake  the  treatment  of  any  case  where  there  is  very 
great  bony  enlargement,  or  where  there  is  reason  to  suppose 
that  there  is  a  very  serious  disease  of  the  bony  structure. 


LECTURE  XXXII 

ANTHRAX ' 

History.  —  One  of  the  oldest  diseases  known  to  medical 
science. 

Distribution.  —  Almost  world-wide.  In  the  United  States 
anthrax  is  sporadic  in  the  North,  East,  and  West;  but  in 
the  South,  more  particularly  in  parts  of  the  Lower  Mis- 
sissippi Valley  and  along  the  coast  of  the  Mexican  Gulf,  it 
seems  to  be  enzootic. 

Animals  afifected.  —  All  of  the  domestic  farm  animals  are 
more  or  less  susceptible  to  anthrax.  The  disease  is  trans- 
missible, and  very  fatal  to  human  beings,  chiefly  by  inocu- 
lation, but  ma}^  be  conveyed  by  means  of  food  or  water, 
or  through  the  inhalation  of  dried  spores,  which  afterwards 
develop  into  the  rod-shaped  organisms  in  the  blood. 

Cause.  —  Anthrax  is  caused  by  a  microscopic  rod-shaped 
organism  or  germ,  the  Bacterium  anthracis.  The  rod  stage 
of  the  organism  is  found  in  living  blood,  immediately  after 
death,  while  the  spore  stage  occurs  outside  of  the  body. 
Some  authorities  claim  that  this  germ  may,  under  certain 
conditions,  live  upon  decaying  vegetable  matter  outside  of 
the  body.  The  rod  is  more  easily  destroyed  than  is  the 
spore.  Where  conditions  are  favorable,  the  spore  may  re- 
tain its  vitality  in  surface  soil,  manure,  in  infected  feed- 
stuffs,  blood,  hides,  hair,  and  wool  of  anthrax  victims  for 
long  periods,  and  be  capable  of  causing  fresh  outbreaks. 

Modes  of  infection. 

(1)  By  the  respiratory  tract.  —  Dried  spores  may  be  in- 
haled   and    reach    the  general    circulation  by  way    of   the 

*  This  lecture  contributed  by  Dr.  W.  H.  Dalrymple,  of  Louisiana. 

152 


ANTHRAX  153 

capillaries  of  the  lungs.  Human  beings  following  certain 
occupations,  as  wool  sorting,  mattress  making,  etc.,  obtain 
infection  in  this  way  more  often  than  do  the  lower  animals. 
(2)  By  the  skin.  —  When  infection  is  introduced  through 
the  skin,  there  results  the  condition  known  as  external  an- 
thrax, carbuneular  disease,  inoculation  anthrax,  or  malig- 
nant pustule.  This  may  be  occasioned  by  insects,  especiall}' 
the  blood-sucking  varieties,  as  the  different  horse  or  gad 
flies  (Tabanidoe) ;  probably,  also,  by  some  varieties  of  the 
mosquito.      The  infection  may  come  ^ 

through    wounds    made    by    infected 


instruments  or  utensils;  or  by  wounds 


coming  in  contact   with  virulent  ma-    ■^^?'^-"     Bacterium 

^  ^  (Bacillus)  Avthracis. 

terial.     In  the  Lower  Mississippi  Val-  (m.  h.  r.) 

lev    the    external    form    occurs    ver^'     J^""  ^p^"^^  ""^"^^^  °^  =^^- 

thrax. 

frequently,   and   some   outbreaks   ex- 
tend over  considerable  territory,  among  horses  and  mules, 
on  account  of   the  vast   numbers  of   horseflies    during  the 
summer  months. 

(3)  By  the  digestive  tract.  —  The  internal,  or  intestinal,  form 
of  anthrax  is  generally  produced  through  taking  the  virus  in 
contaminated  food  or  water. 

Methods  of  introduction  and  spread.  —  Anthrax  may  be 
introduced  by  imported  hides,  hair,  wool,  etc.,  from  foreign 
countries  infected  with  anthrax.  Fertilizing  materials 
manufactured  from  animals  affected  with  the  disease  may 
be  a  source  of  infection.  Running  water  may  become  con- 
taminated and  spread  infection  along  its  course.  The  refuse 
water  from  tanneries  has  been  known  to  disseminate  infec- 
tion from  anthrax  hides.  The  wind  may  sometimes  be  re- 
sponsible for  the  conve3'ance  of  dried  anthrax  spores.  In- 
sects, after  feeding  upon  infected  blood  and  tissues,  may 
transmit  the  virus  to  healthy  animals  at  a  distance  through 
fresh  wounds  or  sores,  or  by  puncturing  the  skin.  Insects 
may  probably,  also,  infect  food  materials  in  troughs  and 
mangers,  by  conveying  virulent  matter  on  their  bodies  and 
feet.     Carrion  birds,   through  the   medium  of  their  excre- 


154  VETERINARY   STUDIES 

meiit  or  soiled  feet,  may  infect  pastures  on  which  they  ahght. 
Carnivorous  and  omnivorous  animals,  as  dogs  and  hogs, 
running  at  large,  after  feeding  upon  anthrax  carcasses,  may 
carry  away  virulent  blood  on  their  feet;  and  if  these  ani- 
mals die  themselves,  they  become  fresh  centers  of  the 
disease. 

Foodstuffs,  as  i)astures,  and  commercial  feeding  materials, 
such  as  the  cereal  grains  and  their  by-products,  hay,  etc., 
raised  upon  lands  infected  with  anthrax  spores,  may  carry 
those  spores  and  spread  the  disease.  Human  beings  com- 
ing in  contact  with  virulent  anthrax  material,  and  having 
their  clothes,  shoes,  hands,  etc.,  soiled  thereby,  may  easily 
spread  the  disease  to  animals.  Neglect  to  properly  dispose 
of  anthrax  carcasses  is,  perhaps,  the  factor  most  responsible 
for  the  continuance  and  spread  of  anthrax. 

Period  of  incubation.  —  The  time  that  elapses  between  in- 
fection and  symptoms  depends  upon  the  method  of  infection 
and  amount  of  infective  material  introduced,  and  may 
range  from  a  very  few  hours  to  several  days. 

Symptoms. 

Pulmonary  anthrax.  —  This  form  is  probably  not  of  fre- 
quent occurrence  in  the  lower  animals.  Dried  spores  may, 
however,  be  inhaled  from  infected  hay,  whole  or  crushed 
grains,  etc.  There  are:  suddenness  of  attack;  elevation  of 
temperature,  104-108  degrees  F. ;  lack  of  appetite;  difficult 
respiration;  redness  of  visible  mucous  membranes;  discharge 
of  blood  from  respiratory  tract;  unsteady  action  of  the 
heart ;  small  and  frequent  pulse ;  staggering  movements ; 
convulsions,  and  death  resulting  from  asphyxia.  This  form 
is  confined  chiefly  to  the  herbivora. 

External  or  cutaneous  anthrax.  —  There  is  swelling  at  point 
or  points  of  inoculation  (carbuncle  or  malignant  pustule), 
with  considerable  local  edema  (localized  watery  swelling). 
This  is  painful  and  hot  at  first,  but  afterwards  becomes 
cold  and  insensitive.  If  inoculations  have  been  made  by 
insects,   the   carbuncles   may   be   numerous   over    different 


AXTHRAX  155 

parts  of  the  body.  The  swelHngs  extend  in  the  connective 
tissue  along  the  course  of  the  h'mph  vessels  and  glands. 

This  form  is  seen  most  frequently  in  the  thinner-skinned 
herbivora  —  horse,  mule,  etc. 

Internal  anthrax.  —  There  is  sudden  seizure,  great  depres- 
sion, and  prostration ;  rapid  elevation  of  temperature ;  stupor; 
muscular  weakness  and  twitchings;  vertigo;  hurried  respi- 
rations; increased  heart  action,  the  organ  beating  tumul- 
tuously;  visible  mucous  membranes,  dark  red  or  a  bluish 
red  color;  sometimes  the  coloring  matter  of  the  blood  passes 
in  the  urine.     This  form  usually  terminates  fatally. 

The  horse,  ass,  and  mule  may  exhibit  symptoms  of  internal 
anthrax  without  visible  external  swellings  when  the  virus 
has  been  taken  into  the  body  with  food  or  water. 

In  cattle  the  internal  or  acute  anthrax  is  most  frequently 
seen,  and  without  external  localized  swellings.  Swellings 
are,  however,  sometimes  observed,  either  as  the  result  of 
inoculation  or  during  the  course  of  the  acute  attack. 

In  the  hog  the  external  manifestations  are  usualh"  con- 
fined to  the  throat;  and  there  are  generally  other  S3'mp- 
toms  of  a  specific  fever  present.  As  a  rule,  death  takes 
place  from  asph3'xia.  The  hog  becomes  infected  from  eat- 
ing anthrax  carcasses;  and  the  disease  is  most  frequent  in 
this  animal  during  epizootics. 

Poultry.  —  There  is  difference  of  opinion  with  regard  to 
the  susceptibility  of  poultry,  on  account  of  their  normally 
high  temperature,  which,  it  is  claimed,  is  unfavorable  to 
the  development  of  the  anthrax  organism. 

Course  of  the  disease.  —  In  isolated  cases,  in  limited  out- 
breaks, and  in  the  early  part  of  an  epizootic,  the  course  of 
the  disease  is  usualh^  ver}'  acute  and  rapid;  while,  toward 
the  termination  of  an  outbreak,  anthrax  seems  much  less 
fatal,  many  of  the  affected  animals  recovering.  Or,  in 
other  words,  the  virulence  of  the  disease  seems  to  become 
weakened  toward  the  end  of  an  outbreak. 

Examination  post  mortem.  —  On  account  of  the  danger  to 
the  operator,  and  of  spreading  the  disease,  through  the  in- 


156  VETERINARY  STUDIES 

fectivity  of  the  blood,  post-mortem  examination  of  an  an- 
thrax carcass  is  dangerous,  and  is  not  recommended,  except 
when  undertaken  by  an  expert  famihar  with  the  possible 
untoward  consequences. 

Diagnosis.  —  This  is  safest  and  most  reliable  by  micro- 
scopic examination  of  a  small  quantity  of  blood  from  the 
extremities  (ear  of  larger  animals,  or  a  foot  of  the  smaller), 
or  by  inoculation  of  the  small  susceptible  animals  (guinea 
pig)  with  anthrax  blood,  and  subsequent  microscopic  ex- 
amination of  the  blood  of  inoculated  cadaver. 

Treatment. 

Therapeutic.  —  Internally,  coal-tar  products  have  been  rec- 
ommended. Externally,  good  results  have  been  reported 
from  injecting  the  carbuncles  (swellings)  with  a  5  per  cent 
watery  solution  of  pure  carbolic  acid,  or  the  requisite 
strength  of  some  other  effective  germicide. 

Preventive.  —  Vaccination  by  the  Pasteur  method  may 
be  practiced  annually  in  anthrax  districts,  or  in  sporadic 
outbreaks,  as  required.  Prevention  in  this  way  is  very 
important. 

There  should  be  cremation  of  carcasses;  thorough  disin- 
fection of  premises  (stables,  sheds,  yards,  etc.);  drainage 
and  cultivation  of  infected  lands;  destruction  of  horse- 
flies, mosquitoes,  etc.;  drainage  of  pools  and  stagnant 
water  where  these  insects  breed  or  frequent;  and  effective 
live-stock  sanitary  legislation. 


r 


LECTURE  XXXIII 

SYMPTOMATIC   ANTHRAX 

TfflS  disease  is  also  known  as  blackleg-,  black  quarter,  etc. 

Definition. — A  fatal  infectious  and  enzootic  disease  of 
thrifty  young  cattle.  It  is  apt  to  appear  year  after  year 
on  certain  pastures  or  along  certain  valleys.  Cattle  over 
two  years  of  age  are  not  usually  affected. 

Cause. — A  short  spore-forming  bacillus  (Bacillus  Chau- 
Toei).  This  germ  is  very  resistant,  being  able  to  remain 
A'irulent  for  years  —  under  favorable  conditions.  Infection 
is  usually  made  by  inoculation,  either  through  the  skin  or 
mucous  membranes ;  more  commonly  through  the  former. 

Symptoms.  —  Local  and  general. 

Local  symptoms.  —  There  is  usually  a  pronounced  swell- 
ing involving  either  the  front  or  hind  quarter.  This  swell- 
ing is  characterized  by  crepitation  as  one  passes  the  hand 
over  it,  due  to  an  accumulation  of  gas  in  the  loose  subcu- 
taneous tissues.  The  swelling  does  not  extend  below  the 
hock  or  knee.  An  incision  into  the  swelling  reveals  the 
presence  of  dark,  frothy  blood,  with  peculiar  acetone  odor. 
This  swelling  is  not  invariable.  Some  cases,  especially 
those  which  appear  at  the  beginning  of  the  outbreak  and 
die  very  suddenly,  may  not  show  the  characteristic  swelling. 

Constitutional  symptoms.  —  The  constitutional  symptoms 
are  usually  acute  and  develop  rapidly.  The  animal  is  dull, 
without  appetite.  It  shows  high  fever  and  marked  debility. 
The  constitutional  symptoms  may  last  from  one  to  three 
days,  and  the  case  usually  terminates  fatally.  The  fever 
may  reach  106  or  even  107  F.  There  is  lameness  in  those 
cases  which  show  local  swellings  of  the  front  or  hind  quarters. 

Examination  post  mortem.  —  This  reveals  a  tumor  filled 

157 


158  VETERINARY   STUDIES 

with  dark,  frothy  blood  with  fetid  odor  and  more  or  less 
gas.  The  spleen  is  normal,  and  blood  from  the  general  cir- 
culation is  also  apparently  normal,  clotting  readily  on  ex- 
posure to  air.  In  these  features  of  normal  spleen,  normally 
clotting  blood,  and  gas-filled  tumor,  this  disease  differs  from 
true  anthrax. 

Prevention.  —  As  soon  as  the  disease  appears  cattle  under 
two  years  of  age  should  be  promptly  changed  to  another 
and  preferably  higher  pasture.  If  the  3"oung  cattle  have 
been  on  dry  food,  then  this  should  be  changed. 

Vaccination  is  now  conceded  to  be  very  satisfactory  and 
thoroughly  practical.  There  are  a  number  of  commercial 
blackleg  vaccines  on  the  market  that  are  quite  reliable. 
The  Federal  Bureau  of  Animal  Industry  is  supplying  what 
is  known  as  the  government  blackleg  vaccine.  This  vac- 
cine is  quijte  satisfactory.  Method  of  vaccination  depends 
upon  the  kind  of  vaccine  used.  Directions  usually  ac- 
company each  shipment  from  any  of  the  reliable  makers. 

VACCINATION 

The  vaccine.  —  The  Bureau  or  Government  Vaccine  con- 
sists of  a  l)rovvnish  powder  furnished  in  packets  of  ten  and 
twenty-five  doses  each,  made  from  the  muscle  of  animals 
affected  with  blackleg.  It  is  prepared  by  drying  the  muscle, 
grinding  and  heating  to  a  temperature  which  lowers  their 
virulence  but  does  not  destroy  the  bacilli. 

Preparation.  —  The  needed  outfit  consists  of  a  graduated 
hypodermic  syringe  of  about  5  c.c.  capacity  and  preferably 
with  rubber  or  asbestos  valve;  rather  short,  stout  needles 
of  good  caliber,  and  sharp;  a  small  mortar  and  pestle, 
absorbent  cotton  for  filtering,  and  a  measure  graduated 
for  cubic  centimeters. 

All  these  must  be  sterilized  by  boiling  or  otherwise  before 
using.  The  vaccine  is  prepared  for  use  by  emptying  a 
given  number  of  doses  into  the  mortar,  adding  a  few  drops 
of  boiled  and  cooled  water,  and  thoroughly  grinding.     Then 


SYMPTOMATIC   ANTHRAX  159 

add  as  many  cubic  centimeters  of  boiled  water  (cooled)  as 
there  were  doses  of  vaccine.  This  is  well  mixed  and  fil- 
tered in  the  funnel  through  loosely  packed  cotton.  The 
filtered  liquid  is  used  for  the  vaccination. 

The  injection  is  made  by  the  hypodermic  syringe  on  the 
side  of  the  neck  or  back  of  the  shoulder. 

Dose.  —  The  dose  is  1  c.c.  for  yearlings  and  somewhat 
smaller  for  younger  animals,  down  to  .5  c.c.  for  calves. 

Proper  subjects.  —  It  is  not  usually  necessary  to  vacci- 
nate calves  under  six  months  nor  over  two  years.  If  calves 
under  six  months  are  vaccinated,  they  may  require  re- 
vaccination  next  season.  Vaccination  should  be  given  a 
few  weeks  before  the  disease  usually  appears,  as  the  disease 
appears  at  approximately  the  same  time  each  year  in  a 
neighborhood. 

Vaccination  should  not  be  given  to  calves  that  are  weak 
from  disease  or  ill  health,  nor  at  the  same  time  with  or  soon 
after  any  surgical  operation  like  castration.  There  should 
be  at  least  an  interval  of  ten  days  after  the  latter  operation. 

Calves  that  are  accustomed  to  being  handled  may  be 
vaccinated  standing.  Those  that  are  wild  must  usually  be 
thrown  or  confined  in  a  chute. 

Treatment.  —  Medical  treatment  for  this  disease  is  not 
considered  satisfactory  or,  as  a  rule,  worth  while.  Preven- 
tion by  vaccination  is  easily  appUed,  inexpensive,  and 
usually  satisfactory. 


^k 


.'-n 


LECTURE  XXXIV 


FOOT   ROT 

This  is  a  very  old  and  familiar  disease.  It  is  especially 
prevalent  among  sheep  on  soft,  wet  pastures,  but  some- 
times prevails  under  conditions  of  extreme  drought.  Some 
outbreaks  are  infectious.  There  are  other  cases  which 
appear  similar  upon  hasty  examination,  but  are  evidently 
not  infectious. 

General  symptoms.  —  This  disease  usually  affects  the  feet 
and  produces  lameness,  perhaps  one  forefoot  at  first,  be- 
tween and  above  the  claws. 
There  is  a  discharge,  with 
very  offensive  odor,  and 
the  hoof  itself  becomes 
rotten  in  places.  Loose 
pieces  are  detached,  and 
the  sole  may  be  affected 
the  same  way.  The  sensi- 
tive parts  may  be  exposed 
in  very  severe  cases,  with 
a  development  of  profuse 
granulations.  The  skin 
above  and  between  the  hoofs  is  red,  tender,  and  swollen. 
The  animal  is  lame  and  of  course  unthrifty.  The  disease 
prevails  more  especially  in  late  summer. 

Differential  diagnosis.  —  It  is  necessary  to  distinguish 
between  infectious  foot  rot  and  a  quite  different  disease 
which  we  know  as  "  foot-and-mouth  disease."  Foot  rot 
begins  in  the  skin  between  the  claws,  or  above  the  crown 
of  the  foot,  and  soon  involves  the  sole.  It  then  spreads; 
both  as  to  surface  and  depth,  involving  the  deeper  struc- 

160 


Fig.  53.  —  Foot  Rot  of  Sheei 
A  plain  case. 


FOOT   ROT  161 

tures  of  the  foot.  Foot-and-mouth  disease  begins  in  an  in- 
flammation of  the  skin  between  the  claws  or  just  above  the 
hoofs.  This  becomes  red,  then  small  vesicles  develop  which 
rupture  and  then  dry.  Foot  rot  is  a  disease  especially  of 
horn  tissue.  In  foot-and-mouth  disease  the  whole  hoof 
may  loosen  at  the  crown,  the  inflammation  involving  es- 
pecially the  skin  at  the  crown  and  the  sensitive  parts  under 
the  wall  and  above  the  sole.  In  foot  rot  the  horn  is  dis- 
eased and  separates  in  pieces.  Foot-and-mouth  disease 
affects  several  feet  and  perhaps  the  mouth  and  udder  also 
—  simultaneously.  Foot  rot  usually  affects  one  foot  at 
first,  and  there  is  little  or  no  fever  in  common  cases,  whereas 
in  foot-and-mouth  disease  the  fever  is  characteristic. 

Foot  rot  develops  slowly,  the  animals  usually  eating 
fairly  well,  which  is  not  the  case  with  foot-and-mouth  disease. 

Foot-and-mouth  disease  spreads  readily  to  cattle  and 
swine.     Foot  rot  does  not  so  spread. 

Simple  foot  rot.  —  Causes :  This  is  a  disease  of  the  horny 
parts,  often  due  to  overgrowth  or  injury,  either  one  of 
which  may  result  in  a  laminitis,  and  so  result  seriously  for 
the  foot.  Similar  conditions  may  account  for  the  develop- 
ment of  a  considerable  number  of  cases,  but  this  disease 
does  not  spread  from  one  animal  to  another  as  does  the  in- 
fectious type.  Some  cases  are  apparently  due  to  the 
chafing  action  of  rough,  wet,  and  coarse  grasses  between 
the  claws.  This  may  be  very  serious  in  a  few  cases,  but 
is  not  a  disease  of  general  importance.  Moisture  seems  to 
bear  an  important  relation  to  the  development  of  this  type 
of  the  disease. 

Treatment.  —  Clean  thoroughly  between  the  toes;  pare 
away  all  diseased  horn  and  remove  the  loosened  pieces. 
The  hoof,  if  grown  out  of  shape,  must  be  trimmed  to  normal 
proportion.  Excessive  granulations  must  be  cut  away  or 
removed  by  actual  cautery,  and  be  repressed  by  astringent 
measures  or  pressure  bandages.  Pledgets  of  tow  may  be 
dipped  in  tar  and  applied  over  the  granulations,  so  as  to 
bring  pressure  at  the  right  point.     These  patients  should  be 


162  VETERINARY  STUDIES 

kept  upon  clean,  dry  footing,  and  serious  cases  should  be 
taken  up  and  kept  in  the  yard  or  in  dry  stables.  For  astrin- 
gent dressing  we  may  use  tincture  of  iron,  varying  from 
full  strength  to  one  to  four,  dissolved  in  water.  Four  per 
cent  carbolized  tar  makes  a  nice  application  for  cleansing 
and  disinfecting,  and  keeps  out  dirt.  The  medical  treat- 
ment, particularly  the  astringent,  should  be  very  carefully 
applied,  especially  into  the  crevices  and  deeper  recesses. 

Treating  whole  flock.  —  It  is  frequently  advisable  to  treat 
a  whole  flock  in  a  general  way;  in  that  case  the  flock  may 
be  driven  through  a  large  pan  containing  a  solution  of 
copper  sulphate  about  four  inches  deep ;  the  animals  should 
be  forced  to  remain  in  the  pan  for  several  minutes,  so  as  to 
insure  good  treatment.  This  solution  should  be  made  up 
dissolved  in  water  in  the  proportion  of  one  to  two  pounds 
per  gallon  of  water. 

Prevention.  —  Separate  diseased  animals  from  the  healthy 
ones,  and  bear  in  mind  that  either  very  wet  or  very  dry 
pastures  may  be  favorable  to  the  development  of  this  dis- 
ease. Hoofs  should  be  kept  pared  to  reasonable  propor- 
tions. Cases  of  foot  rot  should  not  be  neglected  in  the 
earlier  and  simpler  stages,  for  they  are  much  easier  treated 
then.  They  may  i)e  infectious,  and  careful  treatment  and 
attention  may  avoid  a  general  outbreak. 

FOUL  FOOT 

Definition.  —  A  disease  of  cattle  somewhat  resembling  foot 
rot  of  sheep  and  apparently  infectious  in  some  outl:)reaks. 

Treatment.  —  Trim  off  diseased  horn  freely.  It  is  some- 
times advisable  in  the  early  inflammatory  stages  to  poultice 
with  bran  or  oil  meal,  using  powdered  charcoal  quite  freely 
in  the  poultice.  For  mild  cases,  white  lotion  may  be  used 
once  daily;  for  more  serious  cases  use  10  per  cent  creolin 
in  glycerine  once  a  day  for  two  or  three  days,  then  reduce 
to  a  5  per  cent  solution  and  use  every  other  day  for  a  week 
or  two  —  as  necessarv. 


FOOT   ROT  163 

It  is  sometimes  advisable  to  use  a  roll  of  oakum  soaked 
in  tar,  pressed  well  up  between  the  toes,  and  held  in  place 
by  a  tar  bandage  around  the  foot.  In  cases  where  new 
tissue  seems  to  grow  too  rapidly,  it  may  be  repressed  by 
jiieans  of  small  pads  of  oakum  or  tow,  soaked  with  tar  and 
bandaged  firmly  over  the  part  that  needs  checking. 

For  astringent  effect  upon  the  granulations,  tincture 
chloride  of  iron,  full  strength  or  diluted  to  one  fourth  with 
water,  may  be  used.  Four  per  cent  carboUc  acid  in  tar  is 
very  useful,  especially  as  it  tends  to  keep  out  dirt  and  for- 
eign matter. 


LECTURE  XXXV 
FOOT-AND-MOUTH   DISEASE 

Definition.  —  A  very  contagious  disease,  chiefly  of  rumi- 
nant animals  and  swine.  Some  outbreaks  are  much  more 
virulent  than  others,  but  an  outbreak  of  this  disease  is 
always  a  serious  matter  for  the  owner,  even  though  no 
animals  die,  and  a  very  serious  matter  for  the  public  in 
general.  One  attack  does  not  give  immunity;  on  the  con- 
trary, this  disease  is  apt  to  recur  at  comparatively  short 
intervals. 

Symptoms.  —  The  symptoms  are  here  given  for  cattle. 
Sheep  and  swine  show  in  general  similar  symptoms. 

This  disease  develops  in  from  three  to  five  days  after  ex- 
posure. Affected  cattle  are  first  noticed  to  be  sluggish. 
They  shiver,  and  later  on  they  are  stiff  and  lame.  There  is 
profuse  flow  of  the  saliva  with  frequent  swallowing  motions 
and  smacking  of  the  lips.  The  peculiar  lesions  of  the  foot- 
and-mouth  disease  are  vesicles  or  small  blisters  affecting 
the  mouth,  the  skin  above  and  between  the  hoofs,  and 
over  the  udder  and  teats.  These  vesicles  soon  break  and 
bleed,  leaving  raw  surfaces  which  as  a  rule  heal,  but  some- 
times remain  as  rather  chronic  ulcers.  The  skin  and  super- 
ficial tissues  around  the  hoofs  become  intensely  inflamed 
and  swollen.  The  stomach  is  also  involved;  affected  ani- 
mals lose  weight;  and  the  milk  flow  is  checked.  It  should 
be  remembered  that  the  symptoms  vary  greatly  in  virulence 
in  different  animals  and  different  outbreaks.  One  patient 
does  not  usually  show  all  these  symptoms.  Affected  ani- 
mals are  very  much  inclined  to  lie  down  by  reason  of  the 
sore  feet.  This  disease  is  not  ordinarily  fatal,  but  causes 
very  serious  loss  in  the  checked  milk  flow,  and  prolonged, 

164 


FOOT-AND-MOUTH  DISEASE  165 

unthrifty  condition,  and  serioush'  diseased  feet.  There  is 
a  marked  fever  highest  just  before  the  eruption  appears. 
Active  s3"mptoms  of  the  disease  h\st  from  eight  to  fourteen 
days,  and  animals  usually  recover  within  about  three  weeks. 
The  disease  of  the  skin  around  the  hoofs  often  follows  the 
mouth  symptoms,  but  the  two  may  occur  together.  When 
the  disease  affects  sheep  and  swine,  it  is  apt  to  involve 
especially  the  feet. 

Dissemination.  —  The  infecting  virus  is  present  in  yards, 
stables,  carts,  and  on  the  food  or  feeding  utensils.  Even  a 
road  over  which  diseased  animals  may  have  passed  may  be 
infectious.  This  disease  may  be  disseminated  in  an  in- 
definite number  of  ways,  and  is  recognized  as  one  of  the 
most  easily  scattered  of  the  infectious  diseases.  The  in- 
fectious material  is  apparently  present  in  the  discharge 
from  the  vesicles,  in  the  saliva,  milk,  urine,  manure,  expired 
air,  and  perspiration.  The  infection  is  probably  obtained 
through  the  respiratory  or  digestive  organs. 

Prevention.  —  The  preA'ention  of  this  disease  is  simply 
the  prevention  of  infection.  This  country  was  supposed  to 
be  free  from  this  disease  until  1902,  when  it  appeared  in 
several  of  the  New  England  states.  Infected  premises  that 
have  not  been  disinfected  may  remain  infectious  for  an 
undetermined  period.  Until  we  have  more  positive  in- 
formation on  this  point  we  may  say  that  it  would  hardly 
be  safe  to  risk  exposure  in  less  than  a  year  unless  the  premises 
can  be  thoroughly  disinfected. 

This  disease  spreads  rapidly;  it  causes  heavy  losses  and 
is  difficult  to  control  after  it  has  become  widely  scattered. 
Any  reasonalDle  suspicion  of  its  existence  should  be  promptly' 
reported  to  the  local  health  officer  and  every  possible  pre- 
caution taken  to  prevent  spread. 

Treatment.  —  Simple  cleanliness.  Most  cases  will  recover 
without  treatment  in  two  or  three  weeks,  but  in  some 
serious  cases  it  is  necessary  to  use  astringents  and  anti- 
septics, for  instance,  alum  water  or  creolin.  This  is  es- 
pecially for  raw  and  inflamed  surfaces. 


LECTURE  XXXVI 
GLANDERS 

Definition.  —  The  words  "  glanders  "  and  "  farcy  "  both 
refer  to  the  same  disease,  the  latter  being  commonly  used 
for  those  forms  where  the  skin  and  external  parts  are 
especially  affected.  This  disease  is  serious  because  it  may 
be  transmitted  to  human  beings  and  with  almost  invariably 
fatal  results,  and  because  of  great  losses  among  horses.  It 
is  easily  spread  among  susceptible  animals.  Obscure  cases 
may  be  highly  infectious. 

Susceptible  animals.  — This  disease  is  practically  confined 
to  horses,  donkeys,  and  nmles.  Human  beings,  sheep,  and 
goats  are  susceptil^le.     Cattle  are  immune. 

Causes.  —  A  minute  rod-shaped  germ  {Bacillus  mallei), 
which  must  be  recognized  as  the  direct  and  specific  cause  of 
the  disease.  Unsanitary  conditions  and  everything  which 
lessens  the  animal  vigor  may  act  as  predisposing  causes. 
The  disease  is  more  severe  and  more  rapidly  fatal  among 
animals  which  are  crowded  or  overworked. 

Incubation.  —  This  period  varies  greatly.  Different 
authors  have  given  it  variously  from  three  to  seven  days 
in  experimental  work.  In  some  caSes  the  period  of  incuba- 
tion is  probably  considerably  longer,  especially  in  natural 
cases. 

SYMPTOMS 

For  our  purpose,  cases  of  glanders  will  be  divided  into 
but  two  classes,  viz.  glanders  and  farcy.  It  is  generally 
customary  to  distinguish  acute  and  chronic  glanders,  also 
acute  and  chronic  farcy,  making  four  types,  but  acute  and 

166 


GLANDERS 


167 


chronic  cases  of  each  form  differ  mainly  in  severity  of  symp- 
toms and  rapidity  of  development. 

Glanders.  —  This  form  of  the  disease  is  characterized  in 
general  l^y  the  development  of  ulcers  on  the  mucous  mem- 
brane of  the  respiratory 
apparatus;  by  a  peculiar 
discharge  from  the  nose; 
and  sometimes  by  chronic 
cough.  Certain  glands  be- 
tween the  branches  of  the 
lower  jaw  are  affected  in 
a  peculiar  w^ay,  becoming 
enlarged,  hardened,  and 
nodular. 

Acute  cases.  —  When 
the  cases  are  acute,  small 
tubercles  develop  rapidl}' 
on  this  mucous  membrane, 
and  soon  change  to  small 
ulcers,  which  increase  in 
size  and  even  coalesce. 
Thus  is  developed  the 
peculiar  ulcer  of  glanders, 
with  its  dirty  gray  base 
and     overhanging    edges. 

The  discharge  from  these  ulcers  is  quite  distinctly  viscid. 
Very  large  ulcers  and  even  ragged  gutterlike  excavations 
may  develop,  particularly  on  the  nasal  septum.  The  ulcers 
may  heal,  leaving  light-colored,  more  or  less  star-shaped  scars. 

The  fever  may  be  severe  in  acute  glanders,  the  tem- 
perature rising  rapidly  to  105  or  even  107,  and  then  be 
quite  variable  for  a  few  days.  There  may  be  also  persistent 
chills. 

There  is  apt  to  be  a  development  of  A^-shaped  areas  of 
lung  inflammation  in  the  more  acute  cases.  Occasionally 
there  is  a  partial  or  apparent  recovery  from  the  acute 
symptoms  and  then  the  development  of  a  chronic  case. 


Fig-.  54.  —  Glanders  —  Farcy.     (M.H.R.) 

A  recent  case.     Note  the  enlarged  leg  with- 
out farcy  buds. 


168 


VETERINARY  STUDIES 


Chronic  cases.  —  If  the  disease  be  chronic,  then  these  same 
symptoms  in  general  develop  less  rapidly.  The  chronic 
pulmonary  form  of  glanders  may  be  suspected  when  there 
is  a  mild,  dry  cough,  especially  if  such  cough  be  accom- 
panied Ijy  debility  and 
occurs  in  a  stable  where 
an  obvious  case  of  glanders 
has  been  demonstrated. 
When  the  lungs  are  much 
affected  in  chronic  cases 
of  pulmonary  glanders,  the 
horse  is  apt  to  show  symp- 
toms of  heaves,  and  on 
examination  post  mortem 
there  are  found  numerous 
tubercles,  usuall}'  showing, 
or  easily  felt,  on  the  sur- 
face of  the  lungs. 

A  horse  may  he  affected 
ivith  a  mild,  chronic  form 
of  the  disease  and  remain 
in  good  flesh,  be  vigorous 
and  apparently  in  the  best 
of  health  for  years,  show- 
ing no  marked  nasal  dis- 
charge or  farcy  sores,  and  yet  be  very  actively  infectious  to 
other  horses. 

Chronic  cases  may  also  show  a  chronic  nasal  discharge, 
nasal  ulcers,  and  nodular,  adherent  maxillary  glands. 

Farcy.  —  In  the  farcy  form  of  glanders  the  superficial 
connective  tissues  and  lymphatics  are  especially  involved. 

In  the  acute  form,  just  as  with  acute  glanders,  there  may 
be  very  high  temperature  with  local  swelhngs.  This  swell- 
ing often  occurs  in  one  hind  leg,  with  soreness  and  lameness. 
As  the  swelling  abates,  the  characteristic  nodules,  or  so- 
called  farcy  buds,  appear. 

The  head  may  swell  badly  and  later  farcy  sores  appear  at 


Fig.  55.  —  Glanders  —  Farcy.     ( M.  H.  R.) 

An  old  case.     Note  enlarged  leg  with  old 
farcy  buds,  healed. 


GLANDERS 


169 


irregular  intervals  and  places.  These  may  heal  and  leave 
scars  —  as  shown  in  Figure  56.  When  farcy  buds  break 
there  is  discharged  a  viscid  pus  that 
is  very  characteristic  of  this  disease, 
being  clear  and  quite  cohesive. 

The  specific  symptoms  of  farcy  may 
be  summed  up  as  the  hud,  the  ulcer, 
the  lymphatic  cord,  and  the  charac- 
teristic viscid  sticky  discharge. 

In  the  chronic  forms  we  have  simi- 
lar histories  and  symptoms,  but  the 
latter  may  be  less  obvious  and  less 
rapidly  developed. 

Diagnosis. —  A  positive  diagnosis  on 
the  clinical  symptoms  may  be  made 
in  many  cases,  but  there  are  a  great 
many  cases  which  cannot  be  so  diag- 
nosed with  certainty.  In  these  cases 
we  must  rely  upon  the  mallein  test. 

Mallein  test.  —  This  test  may  be  conducted  as  follows : 
Temperatures  are  taken  at  10  a.m.,  2  p.m.,  and  6  p.m.  The 
mallein  is  then  given  by  hypodermic  injection  at  about  10 
P.M.  On  the  following  day  temperatures  are  taken  every 
tv/o  hours,  beginning  at  6  a.m.  and  continuing  until  6  or 
even  8  p.m.  A  rise  of  two  degrees  or  more  above  the  normal 
range  is  diagnostic  and  is  determined  by  comparing  the 
temperatures  taken  on  the  second  day  with  those  taken 
on  the  first  day  of  test.  Such  a  rise  of  temperature  is 
spoken  of  as  a  reaction.  Reacting  animals  usually  show  a 
prominent  and  painful  swelHng  at  the  point  of  injection. 
Mallein  has  developed  the  rather  serious  fact  that  there 
are  unquestionably  a  great  many  cases  of  glanders  which 
are  never  recognized,  some  of  which  are  without  doubt 
infectious. 

Prevention.  —  The  common  methods  of  spread  must  be 
borne  in  mind,  and  the  fact  be  clearly  realized  that  the  germ 
which  causes  glanders  is  very  easily  disseminated.     Some 


Fig.    56. — Glanders  — 
Farcy.     (.1/.  H.  R.) 

Farcy  scars  in  the  face. 
An  old  case. 


170  VETERINARY  STUDIES 

of  the  more  common  methods  of  spreading  it  are  by  drink- 
ing water,  feed  boxes  and  troughs,  hitching  racks  and  posts^ 
and,  in  the  large  cities,  by  the  pubHc  water  fountains.  Any 
means  which  serves  to  bring  the  virus  into  direct  contact 
with  mucous  membranes  or  with  the  broken  skin  may  be 
sufficient  to  cause  an  attack.  Pus  from  the  farcy  sores 
and  the  nasal  discharge  are  very  virulent. 

Prevention  consists  in  avoiding  conditions  which  may 
bring  the  virus  into  contact  with  the  mucous  membranes 
or  broken  skin.  It  is  never  safe  to  purchase  or  trade,  from 
a  stranger,  a  horse  that  has  any  nasal  discharge  or  sus- 
picious sores.  Stories  of  having  caught  cold  or  having  a 
little  distemper  may  usually  be  suspected,  under  such  cir- 
cumstances. 

Treatment.  —  It  is  probable  that  some  cases  of  glanders 
recover  under  favorable  conditions  without  treatment, 
especially  in  the  Northwest,  but  this  is  a  very  dangerous 
disease;  we  have  no  means  of  knowing  which  cases  have  a 
reasonable  probability  of  recovery ;  and  medical  treatment 
by  the  use  of  drugs  has  never  seemed  to  give  any  satis- 
factory results.  For  these  reasons  it  is  usually  conceded  by 
veterinarians  that  treatment  of  glanders  is  not  justified. 
All  cases  should  be  reported  to  the  proper  health  officers. 


LECTURE  XXXVII 
HEMORRHAGIC   SEPTICEMIA   OF   CATTLE 

This  disease  in  the  West  has  been  rather  commonly  and 
badly  named  as  cornstalk  disease.  It  is  interesting  because 
of  its  many  forms;  it  is  interesting  because  medical  treat- 
ment so  far  as  we  know  is  absolutely  useless  and  hopeless. 
We  are  helpless  in  the  matter  of  prevention,  because  we 
have  practically  no  information  as  to  the  method  of  in- 
fection or  method  of  spread.  Those  who  have  had  a  chance 
to  stud}'  outbreaks  have  been  quite  unable  to  trace  any 
connection  between  one  outbreak  and  another,  or  to  trace 
a  previous  history  for  any  given  outbreak.  This  disease  is 
M'orthy  of  very  serious  consideration  because  it  is  so  wide- 
spread and  so  fatal.  It  appears  suddenly  and  under  all 
sorts  of  conditions;  a  number  of  animals,  usually  a  large 
proportion,  die,  and  the  disease  disappears  as  suddenly  as  it 
came. 

Etiology.  —  The  specific  cause  of  this  disease  is  apparently 
a  germ.  Bacillus  bovisepticus,  very  similar  to  the  bacillus  of 
STvine  plague.  How  this  microorganism  spreads  or  how  it 
gains  entrance  into  the  animal  body  is  not  known,  but  at 
present  it  is  supposed  that  the  entrance  may  be  effected  by 
inoculation,  or  through  the  respiratory  or  the  alimentary 
mucous  membrane. 

History  and  development.  —  The  onset  is  usually  sudden 
and  unexpected,  and  yet  in  some  outbreaks  the  onset  is 
quite  slow  and  the  cases  are  distinctly  chronic. 

Season  and  climatic  conditions  apparently  have  nothing 
to  do  with  the  prevalence,  virulence,  or  disappearance  of 
this  disease.     The  mortality  is  usually  high. 

371 


172 


VETERINARY  STUDIES 


Symptoms.  —  In  the  writer's  experience  the  temperatures 
have  been  often  normal  or  subnormal,  except  in  cases 
where  the  temperature  rose  rapidly  just  before  death. 

Local  changes  which  correspond  to  the  tumors  of  anthrax 
and  symptomatic  anthrax  are  very  limited  or  wanting. 

The  urine  in  many  cases  has  been  scanty  or  blood-stained, 
and  this  is  also  true  of  the  bowel  discharges. 

Examination  post  mortem.  —  This  is  very  much  more 
definite  and  satisfactory.     The  blood  is  apparently  normal. 


Fig.  57.  —  IIlmuukiiagic  Septic-emia.     (M.  H.  R.) 
Hemorrhages  (dark  spots)  on  peritoneal  surface  of  intestine. 


Subcutaneous  hemorrhages  are  common  and  vary  greatly 
in  size  and  intensity;  in  some  cases  they  are  large  and  the 
hemorrhagic  condition  is  marked.  In  other  cases  the 
hemorrhages  are  minute,  scattered,  and  few  in  number. 
The  hemorrhages  may  appear  almost  anywhere  in  the  sub- 
cutaneous tissues,  or  involve  any  of  the  internal  organs. 
The  spleen  is  not  enlarged,  but  there  may  be  hemorrhages 
on  the  surface.  The  hemorrhages  usually  have  sharply 
defined  borders  and  are  easilv  recognized  as  hemorrhages. 


HEMORRHAGIC  SEPTICEMIA  OF   CATTLE 


173 


The  serous  membranes  frequently  show  small  hemorrhagic 
areas,  and  the  heart,  especially  its  auricles,  is  often  intensely 
hemorrhagic. 

Summary.  —  We  ma}'  summarize  the  symptoms  as  fol- 
lows: In  acute  cases  the  disease  appears  suddenly;  the 
case  develops  very  rapidly  and  terminates  fatally.  The 
ante-mortem  symptoms  are  very  unsatisfactory  from  a 
diagnostic  standpoint.  The  post-mortem  symptoms  are 
definite  and  as  a  rule  easily  recognized,  and  consist  of  more 
or  less  extensive  hemorrhages  which  are  sharply  defined 
when  they  appear  upon  the  surfaces  of  the  viscera  and 
serous  membranes. 

MENINGEAL    TYPE 

History.  —  Cows  which  have  given  a  normal  flow  of  milk 
in  the  morning  may  give  practically  none  in  the  evening. 
Otherwise  they  are  appar- 
ently normal.  They  may  be 
slightly  ailing  the  next  morn- 
ing, but  showing  little  aside 
from  dullness.  There  may 
be  no  rise  of  temperature  ; 
no  evidence  of  pain  or  dis- 
comfort. When  they  at- 
tempt to  walk,  the  gait  is 
more  or  less  irregular,  re- 
sembling very  much  the 
gait  of  milk  fever  in  its  early 
stage.  This  is  of  course 
more  marked  in  some  than 
in  others. 

Symptoms.  —  The     symp- 
toms^ during  the  first  24  to 
36    hours    are    not    marked, 
except  as  to  continued  dullness,  staggering  gait,  and  cold 
extremities.     The  skin  is  harsh   and    lacking  in  sensation. 

1  In  case  of  young  calves,  the  eases  may  be  characterized  by  profound 
nervous  disturbance  very  early  in  their  histories. 


Fig.  58.  —  Hemorrhagic  Septicemia. 

(M.  H.  R.) 
Hemorrhages  on  endocardium   (internal 
lining  of  the  heart). 


174 


VETERINARY  STUDIES 


This  loss  of  skin  sensation  begins  at  the  posterior  extremi- 
ties and  gradually  extends  forward.  The  milk  flow  is 
checked. 

After  24  to  36  hours,  diarrhea  appears,  the  discharges 
being  dark  and  thin  with  very  disagreeable  odor.  Nervous 
symptoms  gradually  develop  and  are  quite  uniform. 


Fig.  59.  —  Hemorrhagic  Septicemia.     {M.H.R.) 
Hemorrhages  on  costal  pleura. 

The  symptoms  during  this  second  period  are  those  which 
belong  to  a  gradually  developing  cerebro-spinal  meningitis. 
The  inability  to  walk  naturally  is  continued,  the  gait  being 
irregular  and  weak.  The  neck  is  often  bent  to  one  side, 
and  the  muscles,  particularly  of  the  face  and  neck,  spas- 
modically contracted.  During  this  period  the  animals  are 
still  quiet,  moving  around  verj^  little;  but  the  eyes  show  a 
wild,  unnatural  expression.  During  this  period  the  animals 
may  commence  to  chew  in  a  nervous  and  very  persistent 
manner,  with  more  or  less  profuse  flow  of  saliva.  The 
temperatures  may  remain  normal  or  subnormal. 


HEMORRHAGIC  SEPTICEMIA  OF  CATTLE  175 

Later,  there  appears  a  third  fairly  distinct  period  of  in- 
tense nervous  activity.  The  eyes  continue  to  grow  more 
wild  and  unnatural;  the  grinding  of  the  jaws  more  active 
and  more  constant;  the  convulsions  of  face  and  neck 
muscles  become  more  intense;  then  gradually  a  period  of 
intense  restlessness  and  activity,  and  death  ends  the 
scene. 

Post-mortem  symptoms.  —  Meningitis  involving  the  spinal 
cord  or  brain  or  both  is  plainly  evident.     In  addition  to  this 


Fig.  60.  —  Hemorrh.\gic  Septic.emi.\.     (M.  H.  R.) 
Meningeal  type.    Cow  stupid.     Earlj-  stage. 

there  are  hemorrhages  involving  the  subcutaneous  tissues, 
and  lymphatic  glands  in  various  portions  of  the  body;  also 
involving  the  pleurae,  pericardium,  and  surface  of  various 
internal  organs,  as  in  the  usual  type  of  the  disease. 

A  peculiar  fact  which  appears  in  connection  with  these 
meningeal  t^'pe  cases  is  that  the  animals  which  are  ap- 
parently most  serioush'  sick  early  in  their  histories  are 
often  the  cases  which  live  longest,  whereas  the  apparently 
milder  cases  die  very  quickly  and  very  unexpectedly. 


176  VETERINARY   STUDIES 

DIFFERENTIAL   DIAGNOSIS 

It  is  very  important  to  distinguish  between  blackleg  and 
hemorrhagic  septicaemia,  because,  so  far  as  our  present 
knowledge  extends,  we  are  helpless  in  the  presence  of 
hemorrhagic  septicaemia.  We  have  no  vaccine  either  pre- 
ventive or  curative,  and  no  medical  treatment;  whereas 
blackleg  can  be  easily  and  cheaply  prevented  by  vaccination. 

In  both  diseases,  death  is  liable  to  occur  very  suddenly, 
but  blackleg  commonl}''  affects  only  cattle  under  two  years 
of  age,  whereas  hemorrhagic  septicaemia  affects  all  ages  in- 
discriminately. High  temperatures  are  characteristic  of 
blackleg,  especially  earh'  in  the  history  of  the  cases,  whereas, 
in  hemorrhagic  septicaemia,  the  temperature  is  often  normal 
or  subnormal  until  near  death,  and  then  in  some  cases 
rises  very  rapidly.  A  pronounced  swelling  of  the  front  or 
hind  quarter  is  rather  characteristic  of  blackleg,  although 
in  some  cases  which  die  very  suddenly  there  ma}^  be  no 
noticeable  swelling.  These  cases  usually  occur  early  in  the 
history  of  the  outbreak  of  blackleg,  and  following  them 
there  are  other  cases  which  show  the  characteristic  swellings 
of  blackleg.  Swellings  of  this  kind  are  not  characteristic 
of  hemorrhagic  septicaemia,  and  when  present  at  all  are  small. 

Blood  taken  from  a  blackleg  tumor  is  dark,  frothy,  and 
with  peculiar  odor,  whereas  blood  taken  from  a  case  of 
hemorrhagic  septicatuiiia  is  apparently  normal.  It  should 
be  noted  that  this  is  also  true  of  blood  taken  from  general 
circulation  in  the  cases  of  blackleg. 

A  diagnosis  between  these  two  diseases  may,  as  a  rule, 
be  quite  easily  made  by  examination  post  mortem.  Here 
we  have  in  a  case  of  hemorrhagic  septicaemia  the  charac- 
teristic hemorrhages  which  appear  as  blood-stained  or 
bruise-like  areas  under  the  skin;  and  sharply  defined  blood- 
stained spots  on  the  internal  organs  or  the  lining  membranes 
of  the  chest  and  abdomen.  These  hemorrhages  are  not  at 
all  characteristic  of  blackleg.  On  skinning  animals  affected 
with  blackleg,  crepitating,  gas-filled  tumors  of  blackleg 
are  usually  found,  which  are  characteristic  of  that  disease. 
These  are  not  found  in  hemorrhagic  septicaemia. 


HEMORRHAGIC  SEPTICEMIA  OF  CATTLE 


177 


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LECTURE  XXXVIII 
HOG   CHOLERA 

Definition. — The  term  "hog  cholera"  should  obviously 
be  limited,  and  refer  to  a  single  specific  disease  which  can 
be  clearly  described.  To  be  considered  hog  cholera  the 
disease  should  be  recognized  as  an  infectious  disease  for 
swine.  It  must  be  infectious  by  pen  exposure,  and  an 
attack  followed  by  recovery  must  give  immunity.  The 
blood  from  a  diseased  hog  should  be  virulent  and  capable 
of  reproducing  the  disease,  the  living  animal  should  show 
the  symptoms  later  described,  and  the  carcass  of  the  dead 
animal  should  show  the  symptoms  as  given  under  autopsy. 

Variations  in  virulence.  —  Outbreaks  of  hog  cholera  var}'' 
greatly  in  virulence.  In  some  epidemics  the  virulence  is 
marked,  and  the  hogs  die  quickly;  in  other  epidemics  the 
majority  of  the  cases  assume  the  chronic  type;  the  hogs 
do  not  die  so  quickly,  and  the  percentage  of  loss  is  not  so 
great. 

Various  gradations  may  appear  between  epidemics  of  the 
utmost  virulence  and  those  of  the  milder  type. 

Swill-barrel  cholera.  —  The  fact  must  not  be  lost  sight  of, 
in  this  connection,  that  outbreaks  of  swine  disease  appear 
and  alarm  neighborhoods  when  the  trouble  is  due  to  local 
causes.  They  are  usually  diseases  of  the  digestive  appa- 
ratus, and  due  to  errors  in  feeding.  This  trouble  is  some- 
times due  to  filthy  swill  undergoing  bacterial  changes  in 
dirty  barrels.  Sometimes  it  is  due  to  strong  alkali  soaps  in 
swill.  All  the  patients  become  diseased  from  the  same 
source  and  in  the  same  way,  but  the  disease  does  not  spread. 
Several  neighbors  may  make  the  same  mistake  at  the  same 
time  and  get  similarly  bad  results. 

178 


HOG  CHOLERA  179 

Early  symptoms.  —  When  this  disease  appears  the  hair 
becomes  harsh  and  dry,  the  eyes  may  be  watery,  and  loco- 
motion becomes  weak  and  irregular,  with  imperfect  control 
of  the  hind  legs.  The  skin  around  the  flanks  and  fore  legs 
and  abdomen  may  become  purple;  the  skin  of  the  ears  fre- 
quently becomes  much  inflamed,  and,  if  the  hog  lives  for 
several  days,  may  assume  a  scabby  appearance.  Some- 
times the  tips  of  the  ears  slough  off.  The  sick  hogs  separate 
themselves  from. the  rest  of  the  herd,  are  disposed  to  hide 


Fig.  61.  — Hog  Cholera.     (M.  H.  R.) 

Subcutaneous  hemorrhages  resembling  those  of  hemorrhagic  septiccemia.     Note 
the  dark  spots. 

in  sheltered  places,  and  seem  but  little  inclined  to  move 
about.  There  is  usually  a  loss  of  appetite,  although  in 
some  very  acute  cases  the  appetite  may  remain  good  until 
the  end.  Chronic  cases  lose  flesh  rapidly,  and  sometimes 
show  extreme  disturbance  of  the  nervous  system,  exhibited 
in  partial  or  complete  paralysis  of  the  hind  parts,  or  extreme 
nervousness.  The  cough  is  usually  short  and  hacking. 
Occasionally  constipation  appears  among  the  earliest  symp- 
toms, but  is  usually  not  noticed ;  later  diarrhea  appears. 
In  some  of  the  very  acute  cases  which  appear  at  the  begin- 
ning of  an  outbreak  the  animals  die  very  suddenly —  some- 
times before  the  owner  realizes  that  they  are  sick.  Later 
in  the  history  of  the  disease,  as  it  appears  in  a  herd,  the 
cases  tend  to  assume  a  more  chronic  type. 

Sometimes  quite  large  portions  of  skin  and  underlying 
muscular  tissue  die  and  slough  off,  leaving  large  sores.     This 


180 


VETERINARY   STUDIES 


Fig.  62.  —  Hog  Cholera. 
(M.  H.  R.) 
Hemorrhages  (dark  spots)  on  dia^ 
phragm.     Hemorrhages  are  charac- 
teristic. 


appears  more  commonly,  perhaps,  around  the  neck,  head^ 
and  l^ack  than  elsewhere. 

Autopsy.  —  The  skin  on  exposed  parts  of  the  body  where 
the  hair  is  thin,  like  the  flanks  and  inside  of  the  fore  legs 

and  thighs,  may  be  deep  red 
or  purple.  Blood-stained  spots 
may  be  usually  found  in  the 
fatty  tissue  under  the  skin  and 
on  the  internal  organs.  The 
lungs  may  show  evidences  of 
pneumonia.  The  13'mphatic 
glands  in  the  mesentery  and 
elsewhere  appear  deeply  con- 
gested or  inflamed. 

When  the  large  intestine  is 
split  open,  dark  spots,  more  or 
less  blood-stained,  or  even  clots 
of  blood,  are  to  be  seen  upon 
the  lining  membrane  when  the  disease  has  been  of  the 
very  acute  type.  The  more  chronic  cases  show  peculiar 
and  ver}^  characteristic  ulcers  in  the  lining  membrane  of 
the  large  intestine,  and  they  are  usually  more  numerous 
near  the  caecum  or  blind  pouch.  These  ulcers  are  irregular 
in  outline,  with  yellowish  or  dark  centers,  and  frequently 
appear  as  being  raised  above  the  surface.  Small  ulcers  may 
also  be  seen  in  the  back  part  of  the  mouth  and  in  the 
throat. 

The  spleen  is  frequently  enlarged,  and  darker  in  color 
than  natural.  Small  bright  red  spots  are  found  on  the  sur- 
face or  through  the  deeper  structure  of  the  kidneys. 

In  some  cases  the  lung  lesions  are  most  prominent.  The 
skin  may  show  the  same  purple  spots  and  areas  as  in  hog 
cholera.  The  lungs  show  scattered  and  sharply  defined 
areas,  which  are  dark  red  in  color,  and  solid,  like  liver.  The 
lining  membrane  of  the  chest  may  be  diseased;  but  it  is 
not  uniformly  so,  and,  when  this  occurs,  it  usually  follows 
disease  of  the  lung  tissue. 


HOG   CHOLERA 


181 


The  cause.  —  We  must  not  forget  that  hog  cholera  is  an 
infectious  disease,  and  that  it  has  its  prime  origin  in  a 
living  germ.  This  germ  is  probably  so  small  as  to  be  in- 
visible with  our  best  microscopes  and  capable  of  passing 
through  a  laboratory  germ  filter.  Simple  conditions  of 
keep  and  feed  have  much  to  do  with  making  the  animals 


..J^ 

_  ^^...jaattMfc 

g^ 

^^^^Bl^^K^  »            *^^o^r^^M 

^ 

^1                          ,''    |^L*<^^BlljHKt^H 

^^^^1 

3S^*^^t'  ''T^»T-5ji^^*-Sfc.^iiB 

^^^^^^^^ 

l^^^i 

^ 

'^~<:c.^j-:i!^^f^^^-ji.j»^:3 

^\>-^i:>^!:0^^- 

Fig.  63.  — Hog  Cholera.     {M.H.R.) 

Large  intestine  ;  mucous  membrane  showing  general  distribution  of  typical  ulcers. 
I,  Ileum  ;  C,  caecum  or  blind  pouch. 


susceptible,  but  mere  matters  of  food  and  surroundings  can- 
not serve  as  first  cause  of  hog  cholera.  The  predisposing 
factors  in  the  causation  of  this  disease  must  be  given  due 
consideration,  but  the  most  important  thing  to  remember  is 
that  it  is  due  to  a  living  germ,  that  it  never  appears  without 
infection,  and  that  this  germ  may  be  carried  from  one  place 
to  another.  If  the  hog  is  fed  exclusively  on  corn  diet,  or 
from  a  swill  barrel  that  has  been  used  for  years  and  never 
scalded  or  allowed  to  dry  in  the  sun;  if  it  is  kept  shut  up  in 
dark,  damp,  and  perhaps  filthy  pens,  it  will  not  be  able  to 


182  VETERINARY  STUDIES 

resist  any  disease  as  would  one  kept  under  more  favorable 
conditions. 

It  is  evident  to  all  who  have  given  the  subject  careful 
attention  that  swine  hygiene  should  receive  far  more  atten- 
tion in  the  future  than  it  has  had  in  the  past,  and  that 
here  there  is  a  large  field  for  scientific  study.  Good  diges- 
tion aids  in  the  destruction  of  bacteria  in  the  food,  while 
congestion  or  catarrhal  inflammation  of  the  mucous  mem- 
brane of  stomach  may  result  in  a  smaller  percentage  of  acid 
in  the  gastric  juice,  and  thus  the  germ-destroying  power  of 
this  fluid  be  diminished.  Tissue  vitality  must  be  regarded 
as  a  very  important  factor  in  increasing  the  disease-resisting 
power  of  any  animal.  The  laws  of  hygiene  cannot  be  neg- 
lected without  rendering  animals  more  susceptible  to  dis- 
ease. 

How  scattered.  —  The  germs  of  this  disease  may  be  car- 
ried from  place  to  place  in  any  way  that  fine  particles  of 
dust  may  be  carried,  e.g.  upon  shoes,  or  by  wagons,  or  by 
driving  stock  back  and  forth  over  an  infected  area;  or  they 
may  be  scattered  by  driving  or  transporting  infected  hogs 
along  the  public  highways.  Dogs  are  frequent  carriers  of 
this  disease.  Running  streams  and  shallow  lakes  are  also 
serious  factors  in  the  spread  of  the  germs.  Bowel  dis- 
charges are  very  important  sources  of  infection,  and,  if  the 
yards  or  pens  drain  into  streams  or  lakes,  these  become 
carriers  of  the  infection.  Hogs  that  have  died  of  hog  cholera 
are  sometimes  thrown  into  streams  or  buried  in  the  sand 
near  the  edge  of  a  stream  or  lake,  thus  infecting  the  water. 

Hog  cholera  germs  may  live  three  months,  and  possibly 
longer  under  favorable  conditions.  They  are  apparently 
hardy  and  difficult  to  destroy. 

When  an  outbreak  appears.  —  In  case  there  is  a  suspicious 
disease  among  hogs  in  a  neighlDorhood,  the  matter  should 
be  reported  promptly  to  health  officers,  and  this  first  out- 
break should  be  rigidly  quarantined. 

But  one  man  should  have  the  care  of  a  herd  of  healthy 
hogs,  and  this  man  should  not  be  allowed  to,  go  where  there 


HOG  CHOLERA  183 

is  a  possibility  of  getting  the  infection.  Neither  the  owner 
nor  any  member  of  his  family  should  go  to  any  farm  where 
an  infectious  swine  disease  has  appeared;  nor  should  any 
one  from  the  farm  where  such  sickness  is  present  be  allowed 
to  walk  about  the  yards  of  his  neighbors. 

Dogs  and  other  dangerous  visitors  should  be  kept  away 
from  the  pens  on  uninfected  farms  by  a  temporary  fence  of 
woven  wire. 

Before  a  herd  becomes  infected,  it  may  be  desirable  to 
divide  it  into  three  or  four  parts,  and  separate  these  groups 
widely  on  different  portions  of  the  farm.  The  owner  may 
then  lose  one  group,  or  even  two  groups,  and  still  save  the 
others,  should  the  disease  come  his  way. 

If  hog  cholera  appears  in  a  herd  during  the  summer  or 
fall  when  the  weather  is  pleasant,  it  may  be  desirable  to 
turn  the  hogs  out  into  a  large  yard  or  field  rather  than  to 
keep  them  closely  confined  in  pens  or  stables,  where  the 
danger  from  infection  is  greatly  increased.  Larger  or 
smaller  doses  of  infection  have  much  to  do  with  determining 
the  fatality  of  the  disease.  If  hogs  are  allowed  to  run  in 
yards  or  fields,  each  hog  is  exposed  to  the  smallest  possible 
amount  of  infection.  Hogs  should  not  be  allowed  access 
to  small  ponds  or  mudholes  during  the  prevalence  of  any 
suspicious  disease  among  them.  Such  ponds  and  mudholes 
become  deadly  centers  of  infection. 

If  the  weather  is  cool  or  wet,  the  herd  should  be  given 
quarters  as  warm  and  dry  as  possible,  for  with  hogs  turned 
out  to  shift  for  themselves,  under  such  conditions  of  ex- 
posure, the  mortality  is  apt  to  be  very  high. 

It  is  apparently  useless  to  spend  money  on  medicines  in 
the  treatment  of  this  disease.  Before  giving  credit  to  patent 
medicines,  one  should  bear  in  mind  that  outbreaks  often 
check  suddenly  without  any  treatment. 

Experience  demonstrates  that  it  is  desirable  to  separate 
the  well  from  the  sick  animals  promptly,  and  to  place  the 
well  in  uninfected  sheds,  pens,  or  yards.  It  is  also  desirable 
to  keep  the  pens,  both  where  the  sick  and  the  healthy  hogs 


184  VETERINARY   STUDIES 

are  confined,  thoroughly  cleaned  and  frequently  disinfected. 
For  this  purpose,  unslaked  lime  is  quite  satisfactory,  and  it 
is  easily  applied,  as  are  the  better  grades  of  coal-tar  disin- 
fectants. 

Hog  cholera  vaccination.  —  A  new  vaccination  known 
as  the  Dorset-Niles  method  is  rapidly  becoming  available; 
the  serum  being  produced  by  a  number  of  agricultural  ex- 
periment stations  and  sanitary  boards.  The  method  of 
producing  this  serum  is  in  general  as  follows: 

A  hog  that  is  immune  by  reason  of  having  passed  through 
the  disease  or  which  has  been  vaccinated  is  given  inocula- 
tion of  a  very  large  quantity  of  virulent  hog  cholera  blood. 
After  a  time  his  own  blood  develops  property  which  pro- 
tects other  hogs  when  injected  under  the  skin  or  into  mus- 
cles. This  immunizing  serum  alone  produces  a  prompt  but 
temporary  immunity,  but  if  a  hog  so  treated  be  given  pen 
exposure  with  sick  hogs,  or  be  given  an  injection  with  a 
small  quantity  of  virulent  blood  (simultaneous  vaccination), 
it  then  Ijecomes  permanently  immune.  In  this  case  it  is 
on  practically  the  same  basis  as  an  animal  that  has  liad 
the  natural  disease  in  an  outbreak  and  recovered.  There 
are  therefore  two  methods  of  doing  this  vaccinating :  Serum 
only,  which  gives  prompt,  but  temporary  immunity,  and 
simultaneous  vaccination,  which  gives  permanent  immunity. 
The  dose  of  serum  varies  according  to  the  weight  of  the 
hog  treated.  It  is  important  that  the  serum  should  be 
kept  unopened  and  cool  until  used,  and  that  all  precautions 
are  taken  to  insure  clean  work  in  vaccinating. 

There  are  two  very  useful  fields  for  this  vaccine :  One 
where  owners  wish  to  vaccinate  valuable  hogs  in  advance 
of  any  possible  out})reak,  or,  for  example,  when  going  to 
stock  shows.  The  other  and  perhaps  the  most  important 
is  in  connection  with  outbreaks  of  the  disease  where  vaccine 
can  be  used  to  lessen  the  loss  if  used  early  in  the  outbreak 
and  protect  surrounding  herds  and  check  the  outbreak. 

Common  mistakes.  —  It  is  a  mistake  to  bury  hogs  that 
have  died  of  hog  cholera  when  the  carcasses  can  be  burned, 


HOG  CHOLERA  185 

tor  burning  is  by  far  the  most  efficient  means  of  destroying 
the  germs  of  such  diseases.  If  it  is  not  convenient  to  burn 
the  carcasses,  they  should  be  buried  under  at  least  four  feet 
of  earth. 

It  is  a  mistake,  and  frequently  a  serious  one,  for  a  farmer 
to  ship  in  a  lot  of  strange  hogs  from  unknown  stockyards, 
in  cars  that  may  have  been  infected,  and  to  put  these  with 


Fig.  64.  — Hog  Cholera.     {M.  H.  R.) 

Ulcers  in  mucous   naen:ibrane  of   large  colon.     Bowel   split  open.     View  of  the 
interior. 

stock  hogs  already  on  hand.  The  mere  fact  that  the  hogs 
came  from  an  uninfected  district  is  no  argument  to  the 
contrary,  for  the  car  in  which  they  were  shipped  ma}'  have 
recently  carried  a  lot  of  hog  cholera  victims.  Strange  hogs 
should  be  quarantined  for  three  weeks  before  putting  them 
with  hogs  already  on  the  place.  This  gives  time  for  the 
disease  to  appear  in  case  the  new  hogs  have  come  from  in- 
fected herds,  or  through  infected  stockyards,  or  in  infected 
<;ars. 

It  is  a  mistake  to  visit  your  neighbor's  hogpens,  and 
walk  about  among  the  hogs  out  of  mere  curiosity,  when  your 
neighbor  has  told  you  that  some  peculiar  sickness  has  ap- 
peared in  his  herd. 

It  is  a  mistake  to  allow  the  last  one  or  two  sick  hogs, 
which  usually  show  a  very  chronic  type  of  the  disease,  to 
linger  for  months  on  the  farm.  It  is  a  better  policy  to  kill 
such  hogs  promptly,  and  have  done  with  the  disease.  They 
do  not  usually  become  thrifty  and  profitable  feeders  for  a 
long  time   after   recovery.     On  the  other  hand,  they  may 


186  VETERINARY  STUDIES 

remain  infectious  to  the  last  period  of  their  sickness,  thus 
keeping  the  yards  and  pens  infected  and  furnishing  a  con- 
stant supply  of  infectious  material  for  fresh  outbreaks; 
whereas,  if  they  had  been  killed,  the  infectious  material 
would  soon  have  been  destroyed. 

It  is  a  criminal  mistake  to  throw  carcasses  into  any 
stream,  lake,  or  pond,  or  to  bury  them  near  such  body  of 
water. 

Suggestion.  —  It  is  a  very  simple  matter  to  quarantine 
an  outbreak  of  hog  cholera  when  it  first  appears,  and  it  is 
extremely  difficult  to  quarantine  the  disease  after  it  has 
been  scattered  over  several  townships.  Quarantine  must 
be  rigid  to  be  useful.  Partial  or  imperfect  quarantine  is 
worse  than  useless. 

Disinfection.  —  If  the  disease  be  genuine  hog  cholera,  it 
is  not  easily  controlled,  for  the  germs  may  live  three  and 
perhaps  four  months,  under  favorable  conditions,  in  the  soil 
and  about  the  buildings.  Sometimes  the  cheapest  way  to 
disinfect  is  to  burn  the  old  sheds  and  pens  where  the  hogs 
have  been  confined.  But  if  these  structures  are  valuable, 
the  matter  of  other  means  of  disinfection  is  to  be  considered. 
In  this  case,  corrosive  sublimate,  dissolved  in  water  in  the 
proportion  of  7.5  grains  to  each  pint,  is  a  good  disinfectant; 
or  whitewash  that  is  made  by  using  water  that  contains 
four  per  cent  of  pure  carbolic  acid  may  be  used  instead  of 
the  corrosive  sublimate  solution.  All  bedding  and  loose 
stuff  should  be  burned.  The  ground  may  be  disinfected  by 
saturating  the  surface  with  corrosive  sublimate  solution,  or 
by  burning  off  straw  that  has  been  scattered  over  the  sur- 
face, or  the  danger  from  infection  may  be  lessened  by  plow- 
ing the  infected  area.  Sometimes  it  is  more  desirable  to 
destroy  the  floors  of  pens  than  to  attempt  to  disinfect 
them,  but  if  it  is  thought  desirable  to  disinfect,  they  should 
be  thoroughly  saturated  with  the  1 :  1000  corrosive  subli- 
mate solution,  or  with  boiling  water. 


I 


LECTURE  XXXIX 
TEXAS   OR   TICK   FEVER' 

Economic  importance.  —  The  seriousness  of  tick  fever  as  a 
disease  of  cattle  and  the  bearing  of  this  disease  upon  the 
southern  cattle  industry  was  not  realized  until  within  a 
few  j'^ears.  To-day  we  know  that  it  is  responsible  for  the 
death  of  more  cattle  throughout  the  southern  states  than 
any  other  half  dozen  diseases.  Even  at  this  time  its  true 
nature  is  not  generally  recognized  by  the  stockmen. 

Names.  —  This  disease  passes  under  a  variety  of  names, 
such  as  acclimation  fever,  red  water,  bloody  murrain,  dis- 
temper, town-cow  disease,  hollow  horn,  hollow  tail,  etc. 

Causes.  —  It  has  been  established  that  the  disease  is 
caused  by  an  animal  parasite,  a  protozoan,  which  attacks 
the  red  corpuscles  of  the  blood.  Little  or  nothing  is  known 
of  the  life  history  of  this  parasite  outside  of  the  blood  of 
the  affected  animal.  Its  multiplication  in  the  blood  is  very 
rapid  and  its  effects  are  very  destructive,  involving  es- 
pecially the  red  blood  corpuscles.  It  destroys  these  very 
rapidly. 

Transmission.  —  So  far  as  known  the  only  natural  means 
of  transmitting  the  germ  of  this  disease  is  the  southern  cattle 
tick  (Boophilus  annulatus)}  Other  species  of  ticks  attack 
southern  cattle,  but  this  is  the  most  common  and  is  the 
only  one  responsible  for  the  transmission  of  the  Texas 
Fever  germ. 

The  ticks  do  not  carry  the  germs  direct  from  one  infected 
animal  to  another,  but  the  female  ticks  develop  on  infected 

1  This  lecture  contributed  by  Dr.  Tait  Butler. 
^Ov  B-Bovis  (Riley). 

187 


188  VETERINARY   STUDIES 

animals  and  then  transmit  the  germs  to  their  progeny,  and 
the  young  ticks  carry  the  germs  to  susceptible  animals, 
which  they  may  chance  to  infest. 

Susceptibility.  —  Bo  vines  alone  seem  susceptible  to  the 
disease,  although  the  tick,  which  carries  the  infection,  occa- 
sionally infests  horses  and  mules.  Calves  at  birth  are  as  a 
rule  immune;  but  this  immunity  is  gradually  lost  until  at 
two  years  of  age  nearly  all  are  highly  susceptible  to  the 
disease.  Cattle  reared  in  the  southern  states  on  tick-free 
pastures  are  as  susceptible  as  those  raised  in  the  North. 

Period  of  incubation.  —  The  disease  usually  develops  in 
from  seven  to  ten  days  after  direct  inoculation  of  a  sus- 
ceptible animal  with  the  blood  of  one  infected,  or  that  has 
acquired  immunity  from  a  previous  attack.  When  infection 
occurs  in  the  natural  way,  about  the  same  time  usually 
elapses  between  exposure  to  tick  infestation  and  the  de- 
velopment of  the  disease.  This  period  is  not  always  uni- 
form, or  in  some  cases  no  evidences  of  the  disease  can  be 
detected  before  fifteen  to  thirty  days  after  inoculation. 
However,  a  large  percentage  of  cases  develop  within  ten 
days  after  inoculation. 

Symptoms.  —  It  is  frequently  stated  that  tick  fever  occurs 
in  acute  and  chronic  forms.  The  chronic  form,  however, 
usually  follows  the  acute,  and  appears  months  after  the 
acute  attack.  These  relapses  or  secondary  attacks  are  not 
uncommon  in  the  late  fall  and  early  winter.  It  is  then 
difficult  to  distinguish  them  from  ordinary  debility  from 
other  causes  except  by  the  history  of  a  previous  attack  or 
by  an  examination  of  the  blood. 

Fever.  —  In  the  acute  type  of  the  disease  an  elevation  of 
temperature  is  usually  the  first  noticeable  symptom.  A 
temperature  of  107  degrees  or  108  degrees  F.  is  not  un- 
usual, but  when  it  reaches  105  degrees  or  106  degrees,  other 
symptoms  usually  become  apparent.  While  there  are  con- 
siderable fluctuations  in  temperature,  it  generally  remains 
high  during  five  to  seven  days  and  may  then  drop  suddenly 
to  normal  or  below.     Many  animals  die  during  the  extremely 


TEXAS  OR  TICK  FEVER 


189 


high  temperature,  or,  if  the  temperature,  falls,  it  is  only  as 
a  prelude  to  death.  The  period  of  subnormal  temperature 
is  a  dangerous  one,  and  collapse  should  be  fortified  against. 
Otherwise  an  animal  may  succumb  that  might  by  proper 
treatment  be  saved. 

Other  symptoms.  —  The  patient  usually  stands  apart  with 
the  head  down  and  back  arched.  In  severe  cases,  or  when 
death  approaches,  it  may  lie  or 
fall  down.  The  pulse  usually 
runs  from  80  to  100,  and  the 
respirations  from  50  to  60  per 
minute.  In  most  cases  during 
the  extremely  high  tempera- 
tures, the  urine  is  highly 
colored,  sometimes  becoming  of 
port  wine  color  or  almost  black. 
The  red  color  is  merely  color- 
ing matter  from  the  red  cor- 
puscles, which  are  rapidly  de- 
stroyed by  the  germs.  At  first 
the  bowels  are  constipated,  but 
later  diarrhea  is  not  uncommon. 
The  mucous  membranes  are 
usually  pale  and  sometimes 
shghtly  yehow.  As  death  approaches  and  the  symptoms 
become  aggravated,  the  animal  usually  remains  down. 
Occasional  periods  of  excitement,  or  even  convulsions,  may 
occur. 

History  of  the  case.  —  The  most  important  factor  in  deter- 
mining the  diagnosis,  next  to  finding  the  germs  in  the 
blood,  is  the  history  of  the  animal  and  the  presence  of 
ticks.  If  the  animal  has  not  previously  been  exposed  to 
tick  infestation  and  has  recently  changed  location,  or  if  tick 
infestation  has  in  any  way  been  rendered  possible,  a  search- 
ing examination  should  be  made  to  ascertain  whether  ticks 
are  really  on  its  body. 

Ticks,  where  found.  —  The  ticks   are  most  hkely  to  be 


Fig.  65.  —  Texas  Fever  Tick. 

(Pettit.) 
Female  engorged.    Boophilus  bovis 
(Riley). 


190  VETERINARY   STUDIES 

found  on  the  tender  parts  of  the  skin,  such  as  between  the 
hind  legs,  on  the  escutcheon,  on  the  inside  of  the  elbows, 
or  on  the  brisket,  which  is  most  exposed.  Since  the  disease 
may  develop  within  ten  da\'S  after  ticks  attack  the  animal, 
and  this  time  is  not  sufficient  for  them  to  become  larger 
than  twice  the  size  of  a  pinhead,  it  will  be  readily  appre- 
ciated that  to  find  the  ticks  is  not  always  an  easy  matter, 
especially  if  they  are  not  numerous.  Other  diseases  pro- 
ducing blood-colored  urine  are  extremely  rare  among  cattle 
in  this  country. 

Conclusion.  —  The  presence  of  the  symptoms  described 
may  therefore  be  considered  as  diagnostic,  and  good  evi- 
dence as  to  the  presence  of  ticks,  even  though  these  may 
not  be  found. 

Post-mortem  appearances.  —  Only  in  animals  that  die 
during  an  acute  attack  are  the  changes  well  marked,  and  of 
those  only  the  more  pronounced  will  be  given.  Other 
changes  may  be  seen,  but  they  are  often  only  slight,  or 
absent. 

The  subcutaneous  tissue  may  be  slightly  yellow  and  in- 
filtrated with  yellow-colored  serum. 

The  muscular  tissue  is  frequently  pale  and  flabby,  especially 
in  chronic  cases. 

The  spleen,  in  cases  that  succumb  during  the  height  of  or 
just  after  the  subsidence  of  the  fever,  is  much  enlarged  and 
dark  colored.  When  held  up  by  one  end,  the  contents  of 
the  capsule  will  tend  to  gravitate  to  the  lower  end.  When 
cut  into  it  is  black,  soft,  and  engorged  with  blood. 

The  liver  is  enlarged,  congested,  and  usually  mottled  in 
color,  due  to  bile-injection.  The  bile  is  increased  in  quan- 
tity, dark  colored,  thick  and  ropy,  sometimes  almost  semi- 
solid. 

The  kidneys  are  usually  engorged  and  dark,  and  the 
bladder  contains  urine  varying  in  color  from  slightly  red  to 
almost  black. 

Prognosis.  —  The  death  rate  in  calves  under  six  months 
old  is  extremely  low.     In  cattle  a  year  old  it  may  range 


TEXAS  OR  TICK  FEVER  191 

from  ten  to  twenty-five  per  cent.  In  those  two  j^ears  old 
it  will  probably  be  from  twenty-five  to  fifty  per  cent,  and 
in  those  over  two  years  old  from  fifty  to  eighty  per  cent. 

Treatment.  —  This  usually  proves  unsatisfactory.  The 
results  scarcely  justify  the  expense  and  trouble  which  it 
entails,  except  in  very  valuable  animals.  During  the  first 
stages,  when  constipation  is  present,  a  purgative  consisting 
of  from  one  to  one  and  one  half  pounds  of  Epsom  salts  and 
one  dram  of  calomel  may  be  given.  This  should  be  fol- 
lowed by  two  to  three  ounces  of  hyposulphite  of  soda  and 
from  one  to  four  drams  of  quinine  three  times  a  dav.  When 
the  temperature  drops  to  normal,  or  below,  stimulants 
should  be  used  freely  for  a  short  time  and  be  followed  by 
iron  and  strychnine  until  convalescence  is  established. 

When  the  first  case  appears  in  a  herd,  all  other  animals 
that  have  been  similarly  exposed  to  tick  infestation  should 
be  removed  from  further  danger  of  such  exposure,  and 
thoroughly  greased.  An}^  cheap  oil  will  do,  but  if  it  be  one 
third  kerosene,  it  will  be  more  effective.  This  will  not 
only  kill  the  ticks  already  on  the  animal,  but  prevent  others 
attacking  it.  An  outbreak  can  usually  be  cut  short  in  this 
way  and  the  losses  reduced  very  considerably. 

Prevention.  —  Immunity  to  tick  fever  in  mature  animals, 
so  far  as  we  now  know,  can  only  be  secured  through  an 
attack  of  the  disease.  Cattle  raised  on  tick-infested  pas- 
tures have  been  rendered  immune  by  mild  attacks  of  the 
disease  before  they  became  fulh^  susceptible.  If  it  is  true 
that  immunity  can  only  be  secured  through  an  attack  of 
the  disease,  it  follows  of  necessity  that  the  only  preventive 
is  the  exclusion  or  extermination  of  the  tick. 

The  ticks  on  any  pasture  or  farm  may  be  easily  and 
quickly  exterminated  and  the  farm  easily  maintained  free 
from  ticks.  Hence,  it  is  possible,  if  not  yet  practicable,  to 
exterminate  the  ticks  over  the  entire  South  and  maintain 
the  country  tick-free. 


192  VETERINARY   STUDIES 

METHODS   BY    WHICH    TICKS    MAY   BE   EXTERMINATED 

1.  Keep  all  cattle,  mules,  and  horses  out  of  the  tick-in- 
fested pasture,  lanes,  and  lots  for  one  season,  or,  at  least, 
after  September  1,  and  the  ticks  will  be  exterminated  by 
the  next  spring. 

2.  Divide  the  pasture  b}'  a  fence,  with  a  rail  or  board 
tight  on  the  ground,  and  keep  all  cattle,  mules,  and  horses 
out  of  one  half  this  j^ear  after  September  1,  and  out  of 
the  other  half  next  year,  and  the  work  of  exterminating  the 
ticks  will  have  been  accomplished. 

3.  If  possible  burn  the  pasture  over  thoroughly  in  the 
spring.  Mix  sulphur  with  the  salt  given  the  cattle  —  one 
part  of  sulphur  to  three  of  salt.  Begin  not  later  than  April 
15,  and  grease  the  legs  and  under  parts  of  the  body  of  all 
cattle,  once  a  week,  all  summer.  In  greasing  look  carefully 
for  any  ticks  that  may  have  escaped  the  grease  or  attached 
themselves  to  the  upper  parts  of  the  body.  If  any  are 
found,  pick  them  off  and  burn.  The  grease  should  be  one 
third  kerosene  and  the  other  two  thirds  any  cheap  oil 
available.  If  a  little  sulphur  and  tar  be  added,  the  effect 
may  be  improved. 

This  third  method  requires  considerable  care  and  thorough, 
regular  work  to  make  it  effectual,  and  is  only  practicable 
when  the  number  of  cattle  is  not  too  large. 

Concerning  the  life  history.  —  The  methods  just  given  are 
based  on  the  following  facts  concerning  the  life  history  of 
the  tick:  the  full-grown  female  tick  drops  off  the  cattle 
when  she  becomes  engorged  with  blood.  Her  heavy  body 
and  small,  short  legs  make  crawhng  difficult,  so  she  gets 
under  the  dry  grass,  or  "  trash  "  close  at  hand.  In  two 
or  three  days  she  begins  hn'ing  eggs,  and  lays  from  1500 
to  2500  during  the  next  two  weeks.  In  very  warm  weather, 
under  the  most  favorable  conditions,  these  eggs  hatch  in 
about  three  weeks.  The  period  may  be  prolonged  for  eight 
weeks,  or  indeed,  the  hatching  prevented  entirely,  if  the 
weather  is  sufficientlv  cold. 


TEXAS  OR  TICK  FEVER  193 

The  young  ticks  when  first  hatched  are  very  small,  being 
scarcely  visible.  They  crawl  up  the  grass,  weeds,  or  small 
twigs,  and  there  wait  for  the  cattle  to  come  along.  If  the 
cow  does  not  come  along  for  three  months,  they  will  still  be 
there  waiting  for  her.  If  no  cow,  mule,  or  horse  comes 
along  in  three  or  four  months,  these  small  ticks  die  from 
starvation,  for  they  have  no  other  known  means  of  obtain- 
ing food  for  development.  If  the  young  tick  succeeds  in 
lodging  upon  the  skin  of  a  cow,  then  in  three  or  four  weeks 
(and  in  cold  weather  much  longer)  they  reach  their  full 
growth.  The  females,  being  engorged  with  blood,  drop 
off  and  begin  laying  eggs  as  did  their  mothers. 

Neither  old  nor  3'oung  ticks  crawl  far,  hence  a  fence  with 
a  bottom  rail  or  board  on  the  ground  will  stop  them,  but 
wire  fences  do  not  always  afford  protection. 

Ticks  do  not  crawl  from  one  animal  to  another. 

Eggs  laid  during  the  cold  weather  of  late  fall  and  early 
winter  do  not  hatch,  hence  go  through  the  winter  as  eggs 
and  hatch  when  warm  weather  comes  in  the  spring. 

All  eggs  laid  before  September  1  will  probably  hatch 
the  same  fall,  and,  therefore,  the  young  ticks  will  be  killed 
by  the  cold  winter  weather  or  starve  to  death  before  spring. 

Inoculation.  —  Not  only  does  tick  fever  kill  hundreds  of 
thousands  of  dollars  worth  of  Southern  cattle  every  year 
and  depreciate  the  value  of  all  those  marketed  from  one 
fourth  to  one  half  cent  per  pound  live  weight,  but  it  also 
offers  the  greatest  existing  barrier  to  the  improvement  of 
the  quality  of  Southern  cattle  by  rendering  the  importation 
of  pure-bred  animals  for  breeding  purposes  extra  hazardous 
and  expensive. 

For  the  purpose  of  conferring  immunity  on  imported  pure- 
bred or  other  cattle,  a  method  of  inoculation  has  been 
found  practicable  which  reduces  the  loss  from  fifty  per 
cent  or  more  to  ten  per  cent  or  less. 

Method.  —  The  process  consists  in  drawing  from  1  c.c. 
to  2  c.c.  of  blood  from  the  jugular  vein  of  an  animal  not 
less  than  two  years  old  that  was  infested  with  ticks  the 
o 


194  VETERINARY  STUDIES 

preceding  summer,  and  injecting  it  immediately  under  the 
skin  of  the  animal  to  be  inoculated.  This  will  produce 
tick  fever  in  from  seven  to  ten  days.  From  this  not  more 
than  one  to  three  per  cent  will  die  if  the  subjects  have  been 
selected  with  proper  care  and  are  judiciously  handled. 

Important  conditions.  —  The  animals  should  be  between 
nine  and  fifteen  months  old. 

The  inoculating  should  be  done  during  December,  Janu- 
ary, or  February,  for  tick  fever  is  less  severe  in  cold  weather. 

All  ticks  should  be  kept  off  the  inoculated  cattle  until 
they  have  fully  recovered  from  the  inoculation  fever. 

The  inoculated  cattle  should  at  first  be  protected  from 
gross  tick  infestation  by  having  their  legs  and  under  parts 
of  their  bodies  greased. 

The  inoculated  animal  should  be  infested  with  the  first 
crop  of  ticks  appearing  in  the  spring,  for  these  are  prob- 
ably less  virulent  than  those  hatched  in  the  fall,  and  there- 
fore produce  a  type  of  disease  intermediate  in  severity 
between  the  inoculation  fever  and  that  caused  by  the  fall 
ticks. 

If  these  precautions  are  taken,  not  more  than  three  to 
five  per  cent  will  die  from  tick  infestation  after  inoculation. 

In  the  opinion  of  the  writer  the  best  method  of  introduc- 
ing pure-bred  animals  for  improvement  of  the  native  stock 
is  to  import  calves  under  four  months  old  and  allow  them 
to  become  immunized  by  tick  infestation,  as  occurs  with 
our  native-born  stock. 


LECTURE  XL 

TUBERCULOSIS 

Importance  of  this  question  is  evidenced  by  the  fact  that 
human  consumption  and  bovine  consumption  are  apparently 
forms  of  the  same  disease,  and  this  disease  may  probably  be 
transmitted  from  cattle  to  people.  It  is  unquestionably 
the  most  serious  question  now  confronting  the  medical 
profession. 

Prevalence.  —  The  most  widespread  and  universal  disease 
affecting  either  humanity  or  domestic  animals.  This  is 
shown  by  reports  coming  from  alf  parts  of  America  and  the 
civilized  world.  This  disease  prevails  among  all  of  the  do- 
mestic animals,  excepting  possibly  sheep.  Concerning  the 
susceptibility  of  these  animals  there  is  some  discussion. 
Prevalence  is  probably  greatest  in  the  various  classes  of 
animals  in  the  order  named :  cattle,  hogs,  horses.  Chickens 
are  also  quite  susceptible. 

A  careful  study  of  prevalence  according  to  class  and  con- 
dition has  shown  just  what  any  student  of  sanitary  condi- 
tions should  expect.  The  percentage  was  highest  in  each 
comparison  among  "pure  breds,"  in  "city  dairies,"  in 
"  poor  condition  of  stables,"  and  "  poor  ventilation  ";  but 
it  was  shown  that  farm  conditions,  good  stables,  and  good 
ventilation  did  not  prevent  infection.  The  percentage  in 
pure-bred  herds  is  much  higher  than  among  grades  or 
natives.  These  records  must  not  be  taken  to  indicate  that 
farmers  should  not  improve  their  stock  or  that  pure-bred 
herds  should  not  be  maintained.  The  evident  suggestion  is 
rather  that  it  is  unwise  to  attempt  improving  a  herd  by 
tuberculosis  stock  or  to  found  a  herd  upon  such  stock. 

195 


196 


VETERINARY   STUDIES 


Cause.  —  No  fact  in  medicine  is  better  established  than 
that  tuberculosis  is  caused  by  the  bacillus  of  tuberculosis. 
We  cannot  have  tuberculosis  without  these  germs,  and  it  is 
probable  that  no  domestic  animals  or  man  can  be  placed 
under  continued  exposure  to  the  germs  without  ultimately 
having  the  disease.  Certain  predisposing  conditions  un- 
doubtedly have  much  to  do  with  the  development  of  this 


Fig.  66.  — Bovine  Tuberculo!>is.     {M.  H.R.) 
A  case  showing  plain  symptoms  of  disease.     Rare  type. 

disease;  for  instance,  close  confinement,  lack  of  ventilation 
and  sunshine,  and  injudicious  inbreeding. 

Modes  of  entrance.  —  (1)  Lungs,  with  inhaled  air; 
(2)  stomach  and  intestines,  with  food  and  drink;  (3)  by 
inoculation  through  broken  skin  or  mucous  membrane; 
(4)  by  infection  in  utero,  i.e.  before  birth.  This  (4)  is  very 
rare  and  probably  of  small  importance  compared  with  the 
others. 

Structures  affected.  —  Tuberculosis  may  affect  almost  any 
tissue  or  organ  of  the  body.  Milk  from  tuberculous  cows 
may  be  tuberculous,  but  the  danger  is  especially  great  when 
the  udders  are  affected. 


TUBERCULOSIS 


197 


Extent  of  tissue  diseased  may  vary  from  a  few  small  lym- 
phatic glands  to  a  general  invasion  of  lungs,  liver,  kidneys, 
mesenteric  glands,  peritoneum,  and  pleura. 

Symptoms.  —  These  vary  according  to  extent  and  loca- 
tion of  the  disease.  A  few  cases  become  thin  and  rough  in 
appearance,  and  have  chronic  cough  or  chronic  diarrhea, 
and  show  that  they  are  in  a  debilitated  condition.  The 
great  majority  of  these  cases  show  no  symptoms,  but  on  the 


Fig.  67. —  Bovine  Tuberculosis.     (M.  H.  R.) 

A  famous  show  steer,  in  prime  "condition."     Liable  to  be  as  badly  diseased  as 
the  preceding. 

contrary  appear  to  be  in  the  finest  physical  condition. 
There  are  a  great  many  mild  or  latent  cases,  having  but 
a  small  amount  of  tissue  diseased,  and  the  animals  may 
live  for  many  years.  They  may  possibly  die  at  old  age, 
but  on  the  other  hand  they  may  succumb  to  a  sudden 
development  of  the  disease  following  any  condition  which 
produces  debility. 

When  the  lungs  are  involved,  there  may  be  a  persistent 
cough,  shortness  of  breath,  pallor  of  visible  mucous  mem- 
branes, loss  of  flesh,  and  unusual  sounds  in  the  lungs. 


198 


VETERINARY   STUDIES 


When  intestines  and  mesenteric  glands  are  affected,  there 
may  be  chronic  diarrhea  with  slow  and  persistent  loss  of 
condition.  All  these  diagnostic  symptoms  may  vary  greatly 
and  are  often  unreliable;  e.g.  a  cow  may  be  in  good  flesh, 
hair  and  eyes  bright,  and  yet  ready  to  die  in  a  short  time. 

Diagnosis.  —  The  only  reliable  test  is  tuberculin,  or 
Koch's  lympli,  which  seems  to  be  very  accurate.     An  aver- 


FiG,  68.  —  Bovine  Tuberculosis.    (Af.  H.  R.) 

A  great  variety  of  tubercles  on  the  chest  lining  (costal  pleura).    Sternum  below, 
broken  ribs  above. 

age  of  tests  and  post  mortems  of  reported  cases  shows  an 
accuracy  of  about  96  per  cent.  Tuberculin  is  used  by  in- 
jecting a  definite  quantity  under  the  skin  with  a  hypoder- 
mic syringe.  Temperature  is  taken  before  and  after  the 
injection,  A  pronounced  rise  of  temperature  (2  degrees  F., 
or  more)  ordinarily  shows  the  presence  of  tuberculosis. 

Treatment  is  not  practical.  It  is  usually  advisable  to 
destroy  or  isolate  diseased  animals  at  once. 

Prevention.  —  Stockmen  should  breed  with  a  view  to  in- 
creasing physical  vigor  instead  of  breeding  fit  subjects  for 
tuberculosis,   as  many    are    doing.     Bear  in  mind  that  an 


TUBERCULOSIS 


199 


animal  may  give  a  fine    physical    appearance    and  yet  be 
easih^  susceptible  to  disease  or  be  actually  diseased. 

The  practice  of  keeping  cattle  almost  continuously  in  the 
stable  does  not  harmonize  with  plain  teachings  of  ph3'si- 
ology,  and  the  results  of  this  practice  must  sooner  or  later 
be  disastrous.  The  great  law  of  animal  life,  that  use  begets 
strength   and  idleness  begets   disease,   applies   to   lungs   as 


Fig.  69.  — Bovine  Tuberculosis.     (M.  H.  R.) 
Tubercles  on  the  great  mesentery. 


well  as  to  muscles,  and  must  always  hold  true.  Animals 
cannot  remain  permanently  healthy  without  a  reasonable 
amount  of  exercise,  sunshine,  and  fresh  air.  If  lungs  are 
used  less  than  nature  intended,  they  must  necessarily  lose 
in  tissue  nutrition  and  vitality,  and  gradually  become 
absorbed  or  diseased.  It  is  reasonable  to  expect  such  lungs 
to  become  tuberculous,  for  cattle  and  people  alike  have 
frequent  opportunities  for  infection.  We  must  realize  that 
nature's  laws  cannot  be  violated  without  paying  an  inevi- 
table penalty. 


200  VETERINARY   STUDIES 

It  is  unwise  to  buy  cattle  for  breeding  purposes  without 
knowing  that  they  are  free  from  tuberculosis  before  placing 
with  the  herd.  All  sires,  and  it  is  especially  true  of  cattle, 
should  have  abundant  exercise  in  open  yards  or  on  tread- 
mills, or  be  driven  or  worked.  Ventilation  must  be  thorough, 
and  barns  should  be  constructed  with  a  view  to  allowing 
the  entrance  of  unlimited  sunshine.  Sunshine  may  spoil 
the  luster  of  hair,  but  it  also  kills  germs. 

Summary.  —  Do  not  found  a  herd  with  tuberculous  stock. 
Do  not  introduce  the  disease  while  trying  to  improve  a 
herd.  Do  not  allow  suspicious  animals  to  stand  in  stable 
with  healthy  ones.  Avoid  incautious  breeding  and  close 
confinement.  Ventilate  freely.  Allow  plenty  of  fresh  air, 
exercise,  and  sunshine,  especially  to  breeding  stock. 

All  breeding  cattle  should  be  bought  under  tuberculin  test. 
Buy  from  a  sound,  i.e.  tuberculosis-free,  herd.  It  is  much 
safer  to  buy  from  a  sound  herd  than  to  buy  even  under 
tuberculin  test  from  a  tuberculous  herd,  or  from  a  herd  that 
has  recently  been  badly  affected. 

Disposition  of  tuberculous  cattle.  —  Abundant  experiments 
have  demonstrated  that  sound  calves  can  be  raised  under 
favorable  conditions  from  tuberculous  cows,  and  even  from 
tuberculous  sires.  It  is  sometimes  practical  to  free  a  herd 
from  tuberculosis  by  breeding  out  the  disease,  instead  of 
by  immediately  killing  all  diseased  animals.  It  is  usually 
wise  to  slaughter  members  of  the  herd  which  the  owner  does 
not  think  it  advisable  to  keep  in  quarantine  at  a  some- 
what increased  expenditure  of  time  and  money.  It  is  gen- 
erally recognized  that  tuberculous  animals  should  be  slaugh- 
tered under  inspection  and  certain  carcasses  passed  as  fit  for 
food  purposes. 

Tuberculous  cattle  retained  for  breeding  must  be  kept  in 
a  separate  stable  or  in  a  tightly  partitioned-off  portion  of  the 
common  stable.  They  must  not  be  watered  at  the  same 
tank  as  the  healthy  cattle,  nor  fed  from  common  mangers  or 
vessels.  The  danger  in  allowing  tuberculous  and  non- 
tuberculous  cattle  to  associate  in  the  open  air  is  much  less. 


TUBERCULOSIS  201 

The  tuberculous  cows  may  be  used  for  breeding  purposes, 
and  one  or  more  crops  of  calves  secured  before  the  cows 
are  finally  disposed  of.  The  calves  should  be  raised  upon 
the  milk  of  healthy  cows,  or  boiled  milk  from  tuberculous 
cows,  and  kept  out  of  infected  stables  and  away  from  the 
diseased  cattle.  From  80  to  90  per  cent  of  such  calves 
may  be  raised  free  from  tuberculosis  in  this  way. 


/^  -?c-^U-^*^-^«^^^ 


QAtiJuJ^u^^ 


\ 

LECTURE  XLI 


THE  TUBERCULIN  TEST  FOR  TUBERCULOSIS 

Tuberculin  is  usually  seen  in  fluid  form  and  is  then  a  thin, 
water}-,  straw-colored  fluid,  slightly  more  viscid  than  water, 
due  to  the  presence  of  glycerine  used  in  making  up  the 
solution. 

Tuberculin  is  a  chemical  product  from  the  bodies  of  the 
bacilli  of  tuberculosis,  and  is  made  as  follows:  a  certain  kind 
of  broth  is  infected  with  the  bacilli  of  tuberculosis.  The 
bacilli  are  then  allowed  to  multiply  and  grow  in  this  medium 
until  it  has  become  charged  with  this  germ  product,  tuber- 
culin. The  whole  fluid  is  then  heated  to  kill  the  bacilli 
and  filtered  through  porcelain.  The  germs  are  thus  killed 
by  heat  and  then  filtered  out.  Tuberculin  is  therefore  not 
only  germ-free,  but  has  also  been  raised  to  a  high  temjjera- 
ture  and  cannot  be  infectious. 

Effect  on  cattle.  —  Careful  experiments  have  demonstrated 
that  tuberculin  has  no  important  effect,  favorable  or  other- 
wise, upon  the  health  or  milk  flow  of  sound  cattle ;  and  that 
the  effect  on  tuberculous  cattle  is  favorable  rather  than 
otherwise.  An  experiment  was  conducted  at  the  INIinne- 
sota  Experiment  Station  a  few  years  ago,  which  included 
23  sound  and  5  tuberculous  cows,  and  compared  the  total 
milk  flow  and  total  butter  fat  of  the  herd  for  the  week 
prior  to  test  with  the  week  of  test.  In  this  experiment  the 
cattle  were  given  ordinary  handling,  neither  very  rough  nor 
unusually  gentle. 

There  was  a  moderate  decrease  in  the  milk  flow  during 
the  two  days  of  test,  not  more  than  could  be  easily  accounted 
for  by  unusual  handling  of  the  cattle  and  the  presence  of 

202 


THE  TUBERCULIN  TEST  FOR  TUBERCULOSIS         203 

strangers.  This  decrease  was  almost  made  up  during-  the 
succeeding  five  days.  There  was  a  sHght  increase  of  butter 
fat  during  the  week  of  test.  Both  variations  were  easily 
within  the  limits  of  normal  variation. 

The  experiment  with  the  five  tuberculous  cows  gave  about 
the  same  results,  the  difference  being  easily  within  the  hmits 
of  normal  variations,  neither  the  total  milk  flow  nor  total 
butter  fat  being  materially  affected  by  the  test..  Similar 
experiments  have  been  made  elsewhere,  the  results  agreeing 
very  closely  with  this  general  statement.  It  is  undoubtedly 
possible  for  cattle  to  be  so  roughly  handled  during  test  that 
the  milk  flow  might  be  seriously  affected,  but  this  cannot 
be  charged  to  the  tubercuhn.  In  cases  where  serious  results 
accompany  or  follow  tubercuhn  tests,  the  disturbance  can 
usually  be  traced  to  some  cause  other  than  tuberculin. 

Accuracy.  —  Averages  of  very  large  numbers  of  animals 
tested  show  that  tubercuhn  has  had  an  average  accuracy  in 
diagnosis  of  over  95  per  cent,  and  in  the  hands  of  many 
veterinarians  who  have  been  very  careful  in  their  work  it 
has  been  almost  infallible.  Very  advanced  cases  some- 
times, although  rarely,  fail  to  react.  Such  cases  are  easily 
detected  by  ordinary  symptoms,  as  a  rule. 

The  test.  —  Any  number  up  to  60  or  70  may  be  included 
in  one^  test.  Larger  numbers  can  only  be  handled  to 
advantage  by  one  who  is  thoroughly  familiar  with  the  test 
and  who  can  use  a  number  of  thermometers. 

The  injection  is  made  on  the  neck  just  in  front  of  the 
shoulder  or  on  the  flat  of  the  rump. 

At  least  two  assistants  are  needed :  one  to  hold  a  lantern 
and  assist  in  managing  the  cattle,  another  to  hold  some  sort 
of  a  tray,  usually  a  short  piece  of  board,  for  carrying  the 
needed  materials.  There  will  be  needed  a  veterinary  hypo- 
dermic syringe,  holding  3  to  5  c.c,  and  provided  with 
several  short  and  reasonably  strong  needles.  The  syringe 
should  be  first  sterilized. 

If  the  operator  is  without  sufficient  help,  a  bicycle  lantern 
can  be  held  in  one  hand  while  he  is  making  the  injection 


2041  VETERINARY   STUDIES 

with  the  other.  The  needle  should  be  short,  of  fair  size, 
and  inserted  by  a  quick  stab,  entering  at  right  angles  to  the 
skin  surface.  Some  cattle  are  inclined  to  kick  just  as  the 
operator  steps  out  of  the  stall.  This  can  be  prevented  by 
an  assistant  giving  the  tail  a  vigorous  pull  sidewise  at  the 
right  moment. 

A  very  satisfactory  place  for  the  injection  is  on  the 
upper  and  muscular  portion  of  the  rump.  This  avoids 
the  necessity  of  going  into  the  stall. 

Two  periods.  —  The  time  of  each  test  is  divided  into  two 
periods:  {A)  the  day  before,  and  (B)  the  day  after  injec- 
tion. During  (A)  the  temperatures  are  taken  at  8  a.m., 
then  at  2  and  6  P.M.  The  tuberculin  is  then  given  by  hypo- 
dermic injection  at  9  to  10  p.m.  During  (B)  the  tempera- 
tures are  taken  at  6,  8,  10,  and  12  A.M.,  2,  4,  and  sometimes 
6  and  8  P.M. 

The  thermometer.  —  Self-registering  thermometers,  com- 
monly known  as  fever  or  clinical  thermometers,  are  neces- 
sary for  this  work,  and  they  should  all  be  correct  between 
100  and  105  F.  All  thermometers  used  should  first  be  tested 
on  the  same  animal  or  in  warm  water  and  the  records  com- 
pared. Any  thermometer  which  varies  one  degree  or  more 
from  the  records  shown  by  the  others  should  be  discarded. 

Temperatures  are  taken  by  inserting  the  thermometer 
into  the  rectum  or  vagina,  usually  the  former.  If  a  num- 
ber of  cattle  are  being  tested  and  several  thermometers  are 
in  use,  the  latter  may  be  secured  to  the  tails  for  safety. 
This  may  be  easily  done  by  a  simple  wire  clamp,  or  even 
by  shoestrings  tied  so  as  to  give  the  tail  a  few  inches  of  play. 
This  permits  the  operator  to  use  a  large  number  of  ther- 
mometers, and  prevents  them  from  falling  to  the  floor  and 
breaking. 

Dose.  —  The  dose  is  about  1  c.c.  or  ^  dram  Bureau 
tuberculin  per  500  lbs.  live  weight.  The  doses  may  be 
taken  directly  from  the  bottle,  or  one  or  two  bottles  at  a 
time  may  be  emptied  into  a  small  vessel,  from  which  the 
doses  can  be  more  conveniently  drawnjM©--the  syringe. 


THE   TUBERCULIN   TEST  FOR   TUBERCULOSIS         205 

Cautions.  —  The  cattle  must  be  kept  under  the  same  con- 
ditions as  nearly  as  possible  on  both  days;  i.e.  watered  at 
the  same  hours  and  fed  at  the  same  hours  on  each  day,  given 
as  nearl}"  as  possible  the  same  amounts,  and  treated  alike 
on  the  two  days  in  every  respect. 

There  are  several  possibilities  of  error  if  operator  is  not 
careful,  accurate,  and  observing.  The  cattle  must  not  be 
excited  or  worried  in  any  way  but  kept  as  quiet  as  possible 
during  the  whole  test.  If  the  whole  stable  or  any  portion 
of  it  be  much  warmer  on  the  second  day  than  on  the  first, 
or  if  any  cattle  are  allowed  to  become  thirsty,  or  to  go 
much  be\'ond  their  feeding  time,  or  drink  large  quantities 
of  cold  water,  note  should  be  made  of  the  fact  and  it  should 
be  considered  in  making  the  diagnosis  in  doubtful  cases. 

Cattle  that  show  high  temperatures  during  period  {A) 
should  ordinarily  be  released  from  test,  except  in  case  of 
heavily  pregnant  cows.  These  may  be  tested,  if  carefully 
handled,  up  to  within  a  short  time  before  calving.  It  is 
always  possible  that  an  animal  may  show  normal  tempera- 
ture during  (.4)  and  then  be  feverish  from  causes  not  con- 
nected with  the  test  during  (5).  This  rarely  occurs,  but 
the  possibility  must  be  borne  in  mind. 

On  the  other  hand,  a  large  quantity  of  very  cold  water 
drank  may  reduce  the  temperature  one  or  two  degrees  at  a 
critical  time  in  a  low  reaction. 

Importance  to  breeders.  —  The  value  of  the  test  to  breeders 
lies  in  the  fact  that  it  enables  them  to  know  whether  their 
cattle  are  free  from  tuberculosis,  and  it  enables  them  to 
free  their  herds  and  put  them  on  a  sound  and  healthy  basis 
in  case  they  are  diseased. 

JDiagnosis  is  made  mainly  upon  the  fever  reaction:  i.e.  if 
the  temperature  rises,  between  8  and  20  hours  after  the  in- 
jection, about  2.5  degrees  or  more  above  an  ordinary  normal 
range,  as  shown  by  comparison  of  the  (^4)  and  {B)  tem- 
peratures, and  careless  errors  have  been  avoided,  it  is  safe 
to  diagnose  tuberculosis.  A  rise  of  1.5  or  less  than  2  de- 
grees may  be   called  suspicious   and  the   animal  held   for 


206  VETERINARY  STUDIES 

future  retest.  If  the  normal  temperatures  run  low,  e.g.  lOQ 
F.  or  less,  we  would  not  ordinarily  condemn  on  a  2  degree 
rise.  Experience  and  judgment  are  very  necessary  in  this 
work. 

The  reaction.  —  A  typical  reaction  is  one  wherein  there  is 
gradual  rise  and  gradual  decline.  Very  abrupt  changes 
should  be  verified  with  a  different  thermometer.  One  or 
two  high  temperatures  during  (B),  with  the  others  normal 
or  nearly  so,  should  not  be  considered  as  more  than  doubt- 
ful or  suspicious. 

Animals  that  react  sometimes  show  diarrhea  and  a  local 
swelHng  at  the  site  of  injection,  perhaps  with  shivering. 


DIETETIC  DISEASES 

LECTURE  XLII 
AZOTURIA 

Prevalence.  —  Azoturia  is  a  common  and  very  serious  dis- 
ease which  affects  horses  under  certain  well-defined  condi- 
tions. It  is  frequently  fatal.  It  affects  the  best  and  most 
valuable  horses,  and  is  so  very  easily  prevented  that  it  would 
seem  as  though  the  farmer  should  be  familiar  with  this 
disease,  and  his  knowledge  should  come  along  other  hues 
than  that  of  sad  experience.  Farm  horses  in  the  North- 
west do  comparatively  little  work  during  the  winter,  and 
are  in  high  flesh  when  early  spring  work  opens.  This  con- 
dition, together  with  the  fact  that  the  early  spring  is  neces- 
sarily a  season  of  irregular  work,  will  explain  why  so  many 
cases  of  azoturia  occur  during  the  spring  months. 

History. — Azoturia  rarely  appears  among  horses  at  pas- 
ture or  among  those  doing  regular  work,  but  almost  in- 
variably during  exercise  after  a  period  of  "idleness  on  full 
feed  which  has  succeeded  a  previous  period  of  work. 

This  disease  is  frequently  confounded  with  cohc;  some- 
times farmers  call  it  spinal  disease,  and  sometimes  it  is 
thought  to  be  an  inflammation  of  the  kidneys;  but  it  is  easily 
distinguished  from  any  of  these  by  the  history,  which  is 
very  uniform,  by  the  symptoms  which  appear,  and  by  the 
condition  of  the  urine. 

Parts  affected.  —  This  is  not  a  disease  of  the  kidneys,  as 
one  would  naturally  think  from  the  color  and  condition  of 
the  urine,  but  primarily  a  disease  of  the  muscles,  then  of 
the  blood  and  nervous  system.     The  blood  is  dark  and 

^17 


208  VETERINARY   STUDIES 

tarry,  has  a  varnish-like  gloss,  and  does  not  coagulate  after 
death.  The  Hver  and  spleen  are  engorged,  and  may  be 
more  or  less  disorganized  after  death. 

Duration.  —  Mild  cases  may  recover  in  three  or  four  days. 
The  more  severe  cases  either  die  in  a  few  days  or  there  may 
remain  a  persistent  and  more  or  less  complete  paralysis  of 
the  hind  quarters  and  limbs  for  several  weeks. 

Causes.  —  Predisposing  and  precipitating. 

The  predisposing  causes  are  the  factors  which  favor  the 
development  of  the  disease,  and  include  the  following:  high 
flesh,  diet  rich  in  proteid,  and  full  feed  during  a  period  of 
rest,  following  a  period  of  regular  work.  Most  cases  appear 
during  the  prime  of  life.  Mares  are  more  frequently  affected 
than  geldings,  but  all  are  liable. 

The  chief  precipitating  factor  is  active  exercise,  following 
idleness  on  full  feed,  under  conditions  above  given.  It  is 
probable  that  there  occurs  an  accumulation  of  surplus  pro- 
teid matters  in  the  system  during  the  period  of  idleness, 
which  are  rapidly  disorganized  when  exercise  begins.  Just 
how  this  excess  of  proteid  matters  in  the  body  serves  to  de- 
velop the  disease,  and  what  is  the  close  connection  between 
this  condition  and  the  symptoms  which  appear,  are  matters 
of  interesting  scientific  speculation  but  need  not  be  dis- 
cussed here.  What  part  may  be  played  in  this  disease  by 
sudden  exposures  to  cold  after  confinement  in  warm,  damp 
stables  is  a  point  of  dispute.  Some  very  good  and  recent 
authorities  ascribe  a  very  prominent  place  to  this  condition 
among  the  causes  of  azoturia.  It  is  quite  possible  that  the 
two  conditions  of  accumulated  proteids  and  sudden  ex- 
posure to  cold  may  be  associated  in  many  cases. 

Symptoms.  —  The  symptoms  appear  suddenly  with  little 
or  no  warning  and  are  very  uniform.  The  horse  frequently 
comes  out  of  the  stable  feeling  unusually  well,  then  after 
going  a  short  distance  there  is  a  sudden  lameness  or  stiff- 
ness in  his  hind  legs.  Sometimes  both  are  affected  alike, 
but  usually  one  first.  The  horse  staggers,  is  very  weak  on 
his  hind  legs,  and  may  fall  before  he  can  be  unhitched. 


AZOTUkiA  209 

These  patients  perspire  very  freely  before  and  after  going 
down;  the  muscles  over  the  loins  and  hips  are  rigid  to  the 
touch,  frequently  tender  on  pressure,  and  may  tremble  or 
t\\dtch. 

The  urine  is  highly  colored,  varying  from  red  to  almost 
black,  and  is  usualh'  increased  in  specific  gravity;  i.e.  heavier 
than  natural.  This  abnormal  color  is  due  to  the  presence  of 
the  red  coloring  matter  of  the  blood  and  voluntary  muscles 
(lean  meat),  and  ma}^  be  absent  in  mild  cases. 

The  pulse  may  run  up  to  60  or  80  per  minute  (normal,  42 
to  48);  the  temperature  may  be  increased  to  102  or  104 
(normal,  101.5),  but  in  many  cases  the  pulse  and  temperature 
vary  but  little  from  the  normal.  The  bowels  may  be 
normal  and  the  appetite  fairl}'  good  in  mild  cases.  The 
skin  sensation  ma}^  be  diminished,  as  shown  by  pricking  with 
a  pin.  The  natural  peristaltic  action  of  the  intestines  may 
be  suppressed,  but  the  bowels  will  usually  vacuate  under 
the  influence  of  an  injection  or  other  local  irritation.  A 
chronic  paralysis  affecting  one  or  both  hind  limbs  may  be 
a  very  troublesome  factor  in  the  case. 

Prevention.  —  Prevention  is  simple,  easily  applied,  and 
without  expense,  and  this  is  the  point  that  should  be  con- 
sidered by  the  farmers,  rather  than  treatment,  which  is 
frequently  unsatisfactory  even  when  the  patient  recovers; 
moreover,  one  attack  predisposes  to  others.  A  horse  that 
has  had  azoturia  once  is  very  apt  to  have  it  again,  and  the 
second  attack  is  more  easily  brought  on  than  the  first. 
Preventing  the  first  attack  may  be  the  prevention  of  several 
attacks  and  of  the  final  death  of  the  horse. 

There  is  but  slight  danger  of  azoturia  for  the  horse  that 
is  thin  and  weak,  for  the  young  colt  or  for  the  aged  horse, 
for  this  disease  usually  affects  the  best  horse  in  the  barn, 
one  in  good  flesh  and  in  the  prime  of  life.  When  such  a 
horse  has  been  working  on  full  feed  for  a  time  and  must 
then  stand  idle  for  a  few  days,  or  even  twenty-four  hours, 
7nake  a  very  large  reduction  in  the  grain  ration,  or  stop  all  the 
grain  if  the  horse  is  quite  fat,  for  a  fat  horse  needs  but  little 


210  VETERINARY  STUDIES 

grain  when  standing  idle  under  any  conditions,  and  especially 
is  this  true  if  he  has  recently  been  at  work.  Allow  plenty 
of  water  and  turn  out  in  the  yard  every  day  if  possible.  It 
would  be  still  better  if  the  horse  could  be  continued  at 
light  work.  When  such  a  horse  has  been  standing  for 
some  time  after  previous  exercise,  and  the  grain  has  not 
been  reduced  as  it  should  have  been,  the  next  best  thing 
is  to  give  a  decided  cathartic,  e.g.  a  quart  of  raw  linseed 
oil  thirt3^-six  hours  before  hitching,  and  then  work  very 
moderately  the  first  day,  for  quick  or  violent  exercise  seems 
more  liable  to  bring  on  an  attack  than  slow  and  gentle  use. 
This  should  be  borne  in  mind  when  taking  any  horse  out 
for  the  first  time  after  a  period  of  idleness. 

Treatment.  —  These  are  difficult  cases  to  treat,  and  this 
'part  of  the  work  should  he  done  by  competejit  veterinarians 
whenever  such  are  accessible.  The  trfeatment  of  azoturia  is 
frequently  unsatisfactory,  even  with  the  most  skillful  prac- 
titioners in  charge.  The  principal  purpose  of  this  lesson  is 
to  direct  the  attention  to  prevention  and  not  toward  treat- 
ment ;  but  cases  will  arise,  through  the  hired  man's  anxiety 
to  have  his  horses  look  well,  when  the  owner  is  in  no  wise 
to  blame,  and  these  cases  will  occur,  too,  in  sections  where 
competent  veterinarians  are  not  located. 

If  not  voided  naturally,  means  should  be  taken  to  draw 
the  urine  as  soon  as  possible  after  the  disease  appears,  and 
three  times  daily  thereafter.  This  may  frequently  be  ac- 
complished by  inserting  a  hand  in  the  rectum  and  pressing 
down  on  the  bladder.  This  is  an  important  feature  in  the 
treatment  of  severe  cases.  The  azoturia  patient  has  a 
much  better  chance  for  recovery  if  he  can  be  kept  upon  his 
feet  a  portion  of  the  time  at  least,  and  it  is  very  desirable 
that  this  be  done  for  several  reasons;  but  slings  should  not 
be  used  unless  the  patient  can  support  a  portion  of  his 
weight  upon  the  limbs.  When  the  patient  is  unable  to  do 
this,  put  him  in  a  clean,  dry  stall  with  plenty  of  bedding 
and  turn  him  three  times  daily  until  he  can  stand  with  the 
aid  of  a  sling. 


AZOTURIA  211 

Many  different  lines  of  treatment  have  been  used  by 
veterinarians  during  recent  years,  with  differing  and  even 
conflicting  opinions  as  to  results.  Common  baking  soda 
has  been  used  in  large,  e.g.  half  pound,  doses.  Some 
veterinarians  with  wide  experience  believe  they  get  best 
results  with  good  nursing  and  very  little  medical  treatment. 

Recently  reports  have  been  made  from  American  and 
German  sources  concerning  unusually  good  results  from  the 
use  of  adrenalin,  especially  in  early  stages.  These  reports 
need  further  confirmation  but  appear  encouraging.  The 
doses  reported  are  about  1  dram  of  adrenalin  chloride  solu- 
tion in  about  3  oz.  water,  and  usually  three  times  a  day. 

One  old  line  of  treatment  that  has  been  much  used  and 
indorsed  by  best  authorities  is  essentially  the  following: 
Cases  that  show  difficulty  in  breathing  with  full  pulse  may 
be  bled  from  two  to  four  quarts,  depending  on  the  condition 
of  the  pulse,  then  give  one  quart  of  raw  linseed  oil,  or, 
better,  give  one  ounce  of  aloes  with  two  drams  ginger  made 
into  a  pill  with  a  little  molasses;  encourage  the  horse  to 
drink  as  much  as  possible;  if  he  will  not  drink  freely, 
he  should  be  drenched  with  water  or  be  given  weak 
salt  brine  to  make  him  thirsty.  The  more  he  drinks  within 
reasonable  limits  the  better.  If  restless  and  violent,  the 
patient  should  have  a  sedative;  e.g.  one  oz.  bromide  of 
potassium  with  three  drams  fluid  extract  of  gelsemium, 
given  in  half  a  pint  of  sirup.  The  muscles  of  the  hips  and 
loins  should  be  fomented  with  hot  water  twice  daily,  two 
hours  each  time  during  the  first  three  days  of  the  illness, 
and  after  this  a  stimulating  liniment  should  be  used  over 
these  muscles  twice  daily  until  the  patient  has  recovered. 

One  or  two  hours  after  the  physic  and  sedative  dose  two 
tablespoonfuls  of  the  following  prescription  ma}'  be  given 
in  half  a  pint  of  cold  water  or  sirup,  every  two  hours,  until 
all  is  given :  — 

F.  e.  colchicum  sem 1  oz. 

F.  e.  pilocarpus 3  oz. 

Spirits  seth.  nit 6  oz. 


212  VETERINARY  STUDIES 

The  purpose  of  this  prescription  is  to  stimulate  and  assist 
the  kidnej's  and  skin  to  excrete  rapidly.  When  chronic 
paralysis  remains  after  the  acute  stage  has  passed,  nux 
vomica  should  be  given.  Give  one  to  two  drams  fluid  ex- 
tract nux  vomica  or  one  to  three  grains  strychnine  sulphate 
twice  daily  in  feed,  beginning  with  small  doses  and  gradually 
increasing  until  there  appear  symptoms  of  nervousness  and 
muscular  twitching,  when  the  dose  should  be  discontinued 
or  rapidly  reduced. 

Prognosis.  —  Estimates  of  results  must  be  given  with  great 
caution,  for  sudden  and  unexpected  changes  may  occur. 
Perhaps  40  to  60  per  cent  die  in  general  practice.  Prog- 
nosis is  bad  when  complete  paralysis  occurs;  when  the 
disease  develops  violently  from  the  start,  the  horse  going 
down  at  the  beginning  and  soon  losing  control  of  both  limbs  ; 
or  when  the  patient  grows  more  and  more  restless  during 
progress  of  the  disease,  or  is  unable  to  stand  or  support 
part  of  the  weight  in  the  sling.  If  patient  can  stand  alone, 
or  can  stand  fairly  well  when  assisted  by  sling,  the  pros- 
pects are  favorable  without  much  medical  treatment. 


LECTURE  XLIII 


HOVEN   OR  BLOAT 

Definition.  —  A  form  of  indigestion  in  cattle  and  sheep 
characterized  by  an  abnormal  collection  of  gas  in  the  first 
stomach  or  paunch. 

Causes.  —  Bloat  is  caused  by  excessive  fermentation, 
which  results  indirectly  from  such  conditions  as  sudden 
changes  from  dry  food  to  pasture,  or  from  one  pasture  to  a 
better  one,  or  from  grass  to  clover.  Grasses  or  clovers 
seem  more  apt  to  cause  hoven  when  the  dew  is  on,  or  after 


Fig.  70.  —  Trocar  and  Cannula. 
For  tapping  bloated  sheep  and  cattle. 

a  rain.  Frosted  roots  and  impaction  from  overfeeding 
may  also  result  in  arrested  digestion,  and  then  hoven  en- 
sues. Sick  cattle  frequently  bloat  after  lying  for  a  long 
time  on  the  side. 

Why  cattle  and  sheep  are  more  apt  to  bloat  when  the 
dew  is  on  the  grass,  or  after  a  rain,  may  be  explained  theo- 
retically in  this  way:  The  grass  is  more  palatable  and  also 
heavier,  the  cattle  eat  more  rapidly;  more  air  is  swallowed 
with  the  food,  and  they  eat  more  than  at  other  times.  This 
larger  quantity  of  food  makes  such  a  large  and  heavy  mass 
in  the  stomach  that  the  involuntary  fibers  are  partially 
paralyzed.     By  reason  of  the  weight  and  stretching,  diges- 

213 


214 


VETERINARY  STUDIES 


live  processes  are  checked  and  fermentation  goes  to  excess. 
Gas  accumulates  until  the  stomach  may  be  greatly  dis- 
tended. 

Symptoms.  —  There  is  extreme  distention  of  the  stomach, 
which  is  most  prominent  on  the  left  side,  and  difficulty  of 
breathing.  The  pulse  may  be  nearly  imperceptible.  The 
animal  moans,  may  stagger  and  fall,  then  die  in  convulsions. 

Treatment.  —  If  breathing  is  difficult,  do  not  wait  for  the 
effects  of  medicines,  but  tap  with  trocar,  as  shown  in  class, 


Fig.  71.  —  Showixc   W  heki:  to  Tap.     (M.  H.  R.) 
See  white  cross  in  the  flank. 

high  in  left  flank  and  well  forward.  (See  Fig.  71.)  The  tube 
may  be  left  in  some  time  if  gas  continues  to  accumulate. 
Then  give  the  following  as  one  dose  in  ^  pint  of  sirup :  — 

(A)  Aromatic  spirits  of  ammonia   .     .     .     .     1  oz. 
Turpentine 1  oz. 

This  is  a  suitable  dose  for  a  thousand  pounds  live  weight. 

Repeat  every  half  hour  until  gas  ceases  to  accumulate  or 
until  6  doses  have  been  given  if  necessary:  or  (B)  give  4  oz. 
hyposulphite  of  soda  in  6  oz.  water  every  half  hour  until 
gas  ceases   to   accumulate  or  until  a  limit  of  6  doses  has 


HOVEN  OR  BLOAT  215 

been  given;  or  (C)  give  (^4)  and  (B)  alternating,  one 
half  hour  apart.  Do  not  exercise  the  cow  or  sheep  when 
badly  bloated.  This  is  dangerous  because  the  breathing  is 
so  greatly  interfered  with  by  the  pressure  of  the  stomach 
against  the  diaphragm.  When  the  acute  symptoms  have 
subsided  give  the  following  for  physic :  — 

(D)  Epsom  salts 1  lb. 

Glauber  salts ^  lb. 

Common  salt -j  lb. 

Ginger  (ground) 3  oz. 

F.  e.  nux  vomica 3  drams. 

Dissolve  (D)  in  three  pints  hot  water  and  give  as  a  drench ; 
repeat  in  16  hours  if  bowels  do  not  move  freely. 

Prognosis.  —  A  large  proportion  of  cases  recover  when 
properly  treated  soon  after  disease  appears. 

Prevention.  —  A  large  proportion  of  these  cases  may  be 
prevented,  but  hoven  will  appear  occasionally  under  condi- 
tions which  cannot  be  prevented.  Avoid  as  fully  as  possible 
the  conditions  that  have  been  cited  as  causes.  There  are 
two  methods  of  turning  cattle  and  sheep  on  new  pasture 
in  the  spring  or  at  any  season;  from  one  pasture  to  a  richer; 
or  from  grass  to  clover,  with  reasonable  safety.  First  — 
Feed  well  and  then  turn  them  on  but  a  few  minutes  the 
first  day,  and  increase  this  time  each  day  for  a  week.  Second 
—  Give  the  cattle  or  sheep  a  large  ration  of  the  dry  food, 
to  which  they  have  been  accustomed,  on  the  evening  before 
they  are  to  be  turned  on;  repeat  the  large  ration  of  this 
food  the  next  morning,  feeding  much  later  than  usual,  and 
then  turn  them  out  as  soon  as  done  eating,  which  should  be 
after  the  dew  is  off  the  grass  and  not  soon  after  a  rain. 
Under  these  conditions  cattle  and  sheep  usually  may  be 
turned  on  grass  in  the  spring  or  on  new  or  different  pasture 
with  little  risk.  Never  make  such  change  when  the  grass 
is  wet  from  dew  or  rain. 

Pastures  where  the  old  grass  stands  quite  heavy  on  the 
ground  and  the  young  grass  grows  up  in  such  a  way  that 


213  VETERINARY  STUDIES 

the  stock  must  eat  the  two  together,  are  much  less  danger- 
ous than  those  where  the  stock  gets  only  the  new  grass. 

Causes  of  death.  —  There  is  usually  carbonic  dioxide  gas 
poisoning  and  actual  suffocation.  Rupture  of  the  stomach 
or  diaphragm  often  occurs  and  is  of  course  rapidly  fatal. 


LECTURE  XLIV 
CHOKE 

Explanation.  —  Choking,  as  ordinarily  understood,  is  an 
obstruction  in  any  portion  of  the  pharnyx  or  esophagus. 
In  horses  this  is  more  commonly  caused  by  dry  food,  and 
this  usually  occurs  in  the  case  of  horses  which  are  rapid 
eaters.  Cows  more  fre- 
quently choke  on  pieces 

of    roots,   pumpkins,    and     Fig.72.  — For  Relieving  Choke.    (M.H.R.) 
1  ,    ,  rni  Made  of  No.  10  or  12  wire. 

old  bones.     Ihose  cases 

where  a  long  section  of  the  esophagus  is  packed  with  soft, 

dry  food  are  especially  difficult  to  handle  successfully. 

Symptoms.  —  The  horse  or  cow  stops  eating  suddenly  and 
makes  ineffectual  efforts  to  swallow,  then  there  are  spas- 
modic actions  of  the  neck  muscles.  When  the  animal  at- 
tempts to  drink,  the  water  returns  partly  through  the  nose. 
If  the  obstruction  is  of  considerable  size  and  along  the  neck 
portion  of  the  esophagus,  it  may  usually  be  seen  or  felt. 
There  is  usually  a  profuse  flow  of  saliva,  and  particularly 
in  the  case  of  cattle  an  involuntary  chewing  action.  If  the 
choking  occurs  in  the  thoracic  portion,  then  medicines  or 
liquids  are  swallowed  in  small  quantities  without  difficulty 
until  the  esophagus  is  full,  and  return  by  the  mouth,  the 
animal  being  apt  to  cough.  There  is  usually  marked  dejec- 
tion and  distress,  with  an  appearance  of  anxiety.  Food 
and  water  are  refused.     Cattle  frequently  bloat. 

Prevention.  —  Roots  should  either  be  sliced  or  pulped. 
It  should  be  borne  in  mind  that  cows  usually  choke  when 
eating  hurriedly,  especially  when  attempting  to  swallow 
something  under  threatened  attack  from  some  other  mem- 
ber of  the  herd.     Horses  choking  on  dry  feed  are  almost 

217 


218  VETERINARY  STUDIES 

invariably  rapid  eaters,  and  for  such  horses  it  is  well  to  avoid 
dry  bran.  The  grain,  especially  oats  or  similar  food,  should 
be  given  in  such  a  way  that  the  horse  must  get  it  slowly. 
The  grain  may  be  scattered  over  the  bottom  of  a  large 
manger.  Any  device  which  will  force  the  horse  to  eat 
slowly  will  avoid  the  difficulty  in  normal  cases.  It  should 
also  be  borne  in  mind  that  an  animal  which  has  been  choked 
is  very  liable  to  have  a  recurrence  of  the  same  difficulty 
during  the  first  week  or  two  after  the  accident. 

Treatment.  —  If  the  obstruction  is  within  reach,  it  should 
be  removed  by  the  hand,  the  teeth  being  held  apart  by 
some  suitable  device  to  protect  the  arm.  A  person  with 
long  arm  and  slender  hand  can  frequently  relieve  choking 
in  the  pharynx  or  upper  portion  of  the  gullet,  especially 
with  an  assistant  to  shove  the  obstruction  upward  toward 
the  hand.  A  thin  glove  with  the  ends  of  the  fingers  cut  off 
is  desirable  to  protect  the  hand. 

By  coughing.  —  Dry  food  that  cannot  be  reached  by  hand 
should  be  softened  by  the  use  of  oily  or  mucilaginous  drinks, 
and  then  gradually  worked  loose  by  manipulation.  The 
simple  device  of  forcing  the  horse  to  drink  enough  to  fill 
the  upper  portion  of  the  esophagus  may  be  resorted  to. 
The  horse  will  usually  cough,  perhaps  expelling  a  portion  of 
the  loosened  obstruction.  In  case  the  horse  does  not  cough, 
he  can  be  induced  to  do  so  by  pinching  the  larynx  and  re- 
leasing suddenly.  In  this  way  considerable  portions  may 
be  removed  at  each  fit  of  coughing.  A  small  portion  may 
be  loosened  from  the  upper  end  of  the  obstruction  and  the 
animal  may  be  induced  to  cough.  Then  another  drink  is 
given,  and  the  manipulation  and  cough  are  repeated.  Fre- 
quently the  obstructing  mass  can  be  loosened  at  the  lower 
portion,  and  the  loosened  portion  swallowed  if  the  obstruc- 
tion is  high. 

If  the  choke  is  along  the  neck  and  on  dry  feed  like  oats 
or  bran,  then  water  or  raw  linseed  oil  may  be  injected 
directly  into  the  dry  mass,  with  a  good  hypodermic  syringe. 

Such  a  choke  may  often  be  relieved  very  satisfactorily 


CHOKE  219 

by  simply  washing  out  the  mass  through  a  double-current 
stomach  tube.  This  method,  is  applicable  whether  the 
choke  is  along  the  neck  or  within  the  chest.  Probang 
should  not  be  used  in  cases  where  the  choke  is  due  to  dry 
food. 

Mechanical  rntans.  —  Solid  bodies,  like  pieces  of  roots, 
may  be  either  shoved  down  to  the  stomach,  or  drawn  up- 
ward by  means  of  a  corkscrew  probang.  The  probang 
consists  of  a  smooth  flexible  tube  of  suitable  size,  with  a 
central  rod,  upon  the  end  of  which  there  is  placed  (in  some 
makes)  a  sort  of  corkscrew.  This  is  withdrawn  into  the 
tube  during  introduction;  when  the  end  of  the  probang 
touches  the  obstruction  the  central  rod  is  shoved  forward 
and  the  corkscrew  worked  into  the  root  or  whatever  the 
obstruction  may  be.  If  the  obstruction  fails  to  withdraw, 
it  is  at  least  broken  up  and  softened  to  some  extent  every 
time  the  corkscrew  is  introduced. 

The  simple  device  shown  in  figure  No.  72  is  very  satis- 
factory for  relieving  cases  of  this  kind.  It  consists  of  a 
piece  of  No,  10  or  12  wire,  about  12  feet  long;  the  ends 
bent  together  and  twisted  as  shown  in  the  cut,  leaving  a 
suitable  loop  at  what  was  originally  the  middle  of  the  wire. 
This  is  introduced  into  the  gullet  like  a  probang.  The 
farther  end  passes  the  obstruction,  which  is  then  included 
by  the  loop;  the  wire  is  withdrawn  and  the  obstruction  is 
loosened,  moved  upward  a  short  distance,  or  removed  en- 
tirely. If  the  instrument  merely  loosened  the  obstruction, 
then  the  process  is  repeated.  This  has  proven  most  satis- 
factory in  the  writer's  experience.  In  all  work  of  this  kind 
the  nose  should  be  extended  and  the  gullet  kept  in  as 
straight  a  line  as  possible. 

The  probang  or  wire  loop  should  be  introduced  slowly  and 
carefully.  If  the  animal  coughs,  the  instrument  should  be 
removed  and  another  trial  made,  as  the  coughing  indicates 
that  the  instrument  has  entered  the  trachea.  The  intro- 
duction and  after  use  of  these  instruments  must  be  very 
gentle  and  cautious. 


220  VETERINARY  STUDIES 

Whole  eggs  that  have  been  partly  swallowed  may  be  punc- 
tured by  a  large  needle  and  then  easily  crushed. 

Tense,  spasmodic  action  of  the  gullet  may  be  controlled 
by  the  use  of  morphine  or  aconite. 

Whips  and  other  stiff  rigid  instruments  must  be  avoided, 
as  they  are  very  apt  to  tear  the  gullet  just  below  the  pharynx. 
Whatever  is  used  must  be  smooth  and  flexible.  The  after 
treatment  consists  of  soft  food,  for  at  least  a  week. 


LECTURE  XLV 

HEAVES 

Definition.  —  This  is  a  disturbance  of  the  process  of  res- 
piration characterized  by  easy  inspiration  and  difficult  ex- 
piration, the  air  being  forced  out  by  two  cUstinct  move- 
ments. This  disease  is  usually  conceded  to  be  an  indirect 
result  of  a  disturbance  originating  in  the  stomach  and  affect- 
ing the  lungs  through  the  pneumogastric  or  tenth  cranial 
nerve.  Both  these  organs  receive  a  portion  of  their  nerve 
supply  from  this  large  nerve.  This  nerve  gives  very  deli- 
cate sensibility  to  the  lar3aix,  pharynx,  esophagus,  and 
stomach,  and  gives  motor  nerve  fibers  for  the  bronchial 
tubes,  esophagus,  and  stomach. 

Future  information  may  easily  show  that  this  theoretical 
nerve  disturbance  is  not  sufficient  to  account  for  many 
cases  of  ordinary  heaves,  but  it  is  evident  that  true  heaves 
is  usually  associated  with  the  feeding  of  considerable  quan- 
tities of  timothy  and  clover  hay. 

Heaves  lessens  very  materially  a  horse's  value  and  use- 
fulness. Horses  so  affected  are  often  unthrifty  by  reason  of 
chronic  indigestion.  Light  feeders  are  as  a  rule  free  from 
heaves,  and  the  horse  that  eats  hay  greedily  is  the  one  most 
liable  to  have  heaves. 

Asthma  is  very  similar  to  heaves  in  some  respects,  and 
it  is  well  known  that  persons  having  a  tendency  to  asthma 
may  very  easily  have  attacks  brought  on  by  overeating, 
or  by  eating  indigestible  materials. 

In  the  lungs  of  horses  affected  with  heaves  the  air  vesicles 
^re  gradually  dilated,  losing  their  elasticity;  they  may  even 
rupture  together  so  as  to  produce  small  cavities  from 
which  the  air  is  expelled  with  great  difficulty.     During  forced 

221 


222  VETERINARY   STUDIES 

expiration,  the  air  may  escape  into  the  surrounding  tissue. 
This  emphysema,  or  air  escaping  from  the  air  cells  into  the 
lung  tissues,  usually  occurs  in  connection  with  heaves,  but 
its  relation  to  the  disease  is  quite  problematical.  Plainly  a 
horse  may  have  such  emphysema  without  heaves,  but  rarely 
heaves  without  the  emphysema.  This  condition  is  probably 
to  be  regarded  as  an  effect  rather  than  a  cause. 

Cause.  —  Heaves  is  generally  conceded  to  be  a  reflex 
nervous  disturbance  through  the  stomach  branch  of  the 
tenth  cranial  nerve,  which  nerve  also  supplies  in  part  the 
heart  and  lungs.  We  may  say  that  the  direct  cause  of 
heaves  is  excessive  eating  of  bulky  food,  especially  hay 
that  is  overripe  and  dusty,  or  worse  —  musty.  Tame  hay 
cut  very  ripe  and  dusty  clover  hay  are  both  prone  to  cause 
this  trouble.  Heaves  rarely  if  ever  develops  in  horses  in 
pasture  or  that  have  only  bright,  wild  hay  or  a  reasonable 
quantity  of  early  cut  tame  hay.  This  disease  is  said  to  be 
almost  unknown  in  arid  regions  where  timothy  and  clover 
hay  are  grown  by  irrigation,  and  where  such  hay  is  never 
exposed  to  dew  or  rain  and  therefore  does  not  develop 
fungi  to  a  serious  extent.  Mere  bulk  and  overripeness  are 
probably  not  the  only  factors.  Many  cases  of  heaves  may 
possibly  be  due  to  fungi  or  their  products  ratlier  than  to 
the  character  of  the  food  with  which  the  fungi  are  taken. 

Symptoms.  —  A  peculiar,  explosive  cough  usually  ajjpears 
before  the  breathing  becomes  much  disturbed.  After  a 
time  it  is  noticed  that  exercise  produces  unusual  difficulty 
in  breathing,  the  air  being  taken  in  quite  easily  but  expelled 
with  difficulty.  When  this  stage  develops,  the  air  is  ex- 
pelled in  two  efforts  instead  of  one,  the  latter  portion  of  the 
tidal  air  being  expelled  by  a  special  effort  of  the  belly 
muscles.     Overfeeding,  of  course,  increases  the  difficulty. 

Some  cases  of  heaves  may  be  disguised  temporarily  by  the 
use  of  drugs  and  feeding  on  concentrated  diet.  This  trick 
may  be  detected,  however,  by  allowing  the  horse  a  hearty 
feed  and  water,  and  then  giving  active  exercise,  or  even 
active  exercise  without  the  special  feeding  and  water.     It 


HEAVES  223 

is  usually  easy  to  distinguish  heaves  and  roaring.  The  latter 
is  a  disease  of  the  larynx  due  to  paralysis  of  one  of  the 
laryngeal  cartilages.  It  is  shown  by  the  abnormal  sounds 
known  as  roaring  or  whistling,  the  movement  of  the  flank 
and  chest  being  normal  in  character. 

Prevention.  —  The  prevention  of  heaves  may  be  very 
easily  stated  and  almost  as  easily  accomplished,  by  mere 
avoidance  of  well-known  causes.  There  is  a  very  general 
and  very  wasteful  feeding  of  hay  among  farmers.  This  is 
not  merely  a  waste  of  hay;  it  is  more  than  that;  —  an  injury 
to  the  horse.  A  case  of  heaves  is  a  discredit  to  the  owner 
or  at  least  to  the  feeder,  but  on  the  wdiole,  a  rather  credit- 
able thing  to  the  horse.  Heaves  indicates  that  the  horse 
is  a  good  feeder  and  under  wiser  management  would  be 
able  to  take  and  digest  a  large  amount  of  food  and  do  hard 
work.  Question  often  arises  as  to  whether  owners  of 
mares  should  patronize  a  stallion  affected  wdth  heaves. 
It  has  always  seemed  plain  to  the  writer  that  heaves  is  not 
at  all  objectionable  to  the  stallion,  but  rather  a  credit  to  the 
horse,  indicating  that  he  is  a  good  feeder  and  liable  to  sire 
hearty  colts. 

It  is  not  wise  to  allow  a  horse  to  do  very  fast  or  hard 
work  on  a  distended  stomach,  which  means  that  during  the 
first  hour  or  so  after  hearty  meals  the  work  should  be 
slower  and  easier.  Little  hay  should  be  fed  in  the  morning, 
and  less  at  noon,  with  a  fairly  good  feed  in  the  evening. 

To  prevent  heaves,  then,  feed  reasonable  quantities  of 
good  wild  hay  or  tame  hay  cut  early  and  not  allowed  to 
become  musty.  Avoid  all  dusty  foods.  The  amount  of 
hay  should  be  restricted  to  much  less  than  is  usually  fed. 
Horses  that  are  greedy  feeders  should  be  bedded  with  saw- 
dust or  shavings  or  protected  by  a  muzzle  in  case  other 
bedding  is  used. 

Autopsy.  —  On  examination  post  mortem  the  lungs  may 
be  found  to  be  somewhat  bloated  and  to  contain  more  air 
than  normal.  The  chambers  in  the  right  side  of  the  heart 
are  apt  to  be  enlarged  and  their  walls  thickened.      In  ex- 


224  VETERINARY   STUDIES 

amining  the  lungs  of  long-standing  cases  of  heaves,  we 
note  tliat  they  are  pale  and  float  abnormally  high  in  water,, 
due  to  the  emphysema  or  air  in  the  tissues  previously  men- 
tioned. The  stomach  is  usually  larger  than  normal,  due  to 
overeating  of  bulky  foods  and  consequent  stretching. 

Treatment.  —  Avoid  overripe  and  dusty  hay.  Feed  little 
hay,  and  avoid  much  bulky  food  of  any  kind.  Give  but 
little  hay  for  the  morning  feed,  none  at  all  at  noon, 
and  a  moderate  feed  in  the  evening,  but  much  less  than 
would  be  considered  careful  feeding  for  a  healthy  horse. 
If  the  hay  or  grain  is  at  all  dusty,  sprinkle  it  as  a  regular 
custom.  Use  horses  affected  with  heaves  for  slow  work, 
and  give  as  much  rest  as  possible  after  meals. 

Medical  treatment  is  considered  unsatisf actor}'  so  far  as 
curative  effect  in  bad  cases  is  concerned.  Fowler's  solution 
in  one-ounce  doses  3  times  a  day  in  the  feed,  long  continued 
and  coupled  with  careful  feeding,  is  often  a  great  help. 
Proper  feeding  alone  may  be  said  to  be  almost  curative,, 
although  subsequent  attacks  are  easily  brought  on  by 
injudicious  management. 


LECTURE  XLVI 
LAMINITIS 

Definition.  —  This  is  a  painful  and  rather  frequent  dis- 
ease of  horses,  —  commonly  called  founder.  It  is  essentially 
an  inflammation  of  the  sensitive  parts  within  the  hoof,  and 
takes  its  name  from  the  sensitive  laminae.  This  disease  is 
more  common  in  the  front  feet,  but  may  affect  any  of  the 
feet  —  one  or  more. 

Symptoms.  —  The  horse  usually  persists  in  l3dng  down. 
There  is  unmistakable  evidence  of  extreme  pain.  The  res- 
piration, pulse,  and  even  the  temperature  may  be  increased 
as  a  direct  result  of  the  great  pain.  The  pulse  is  full  and 
strong.  If  the  disease  affects  the  front  feet,  the  horse  carries 
as  much  of  the  weight  as  possible  upon  the  hind  feet,  with 
the  two  front  limbs  projecting  forward.  If  the  hind  feet 
are  involved,  the  horse  stands  with  the  two  front  feet  back 
under  the  body,  carrying  as  much  weight  as  possible,  with 
the  tw^o  hind  feet  extending  forward  so  as  to  relieve  the 
sensitive  parts  from  pressure. 

Cause.  —  Laminitis  results  from  profound  disturbances 
of  the  circulation.  The  unyielding  horny  box  does  not  per- 
mit expansion  of  the  inflamed  tissues,  hence  the  great  pain 
that  is  invariably  manifest  in  this  disease.  This  disorder 
may  have  its  origin  in  an  unusual  overfeeding;  or  in  a 
large  quantity  of  very  cold  water  taken  when  a  horse  is 
very  hot  or  tired.  It  may  be  a  result  of  forcing  a  horse 
to  stand  on  hard  footing  for  a  long  time.  Concussion  on 
hard  roads,  exhaustion,  and  exposing  a  hot  horse  to  cold 
wind  or  driving  through  cold  water,  may  all  serve  as  causes 
of  laminitis  or  founder.  It  sometimes  occurs  in  one  front 
foot,  or  one  hind  foot,  as  an  indirect  result  of  lameness  in 
Q  225 


22G  VETERINARY  STUDIES 

the  opposite  limb.  The  horse  overworks  the  sound  Hmb 
in  order  to  relieve  pain  in  the  i)reviously  lame  one,  and 
thus  causes  laminitis  in  the  foot  which  had  previously  been 
sound.  Laminitis  not  infrequently  follows  a  pneumonia  or 
bronchitis;  sometimes  inflammation  of  the  bowels,  and 
apparently  without  y^ther  direct  exciting  cause. 

Pathology.  —  There  is  first  of  all  an  inflammation  of  the 
sensitive  parts  within  the  hoof,  especially  the  sensitive 
laminae.  This  is  followed  by  an  exudate,  which  may  be 
either  sHght  or  considerable  in  amount  and  more  or  less 
persistent.  In  persistent  cases,  with  considerable  exudate, 
the  toe  of  the  os  pedis  (third  phalanx)  is  gradually  pressed 
downward  against  the  sole.  The  sole  may  thus  gradually 
become  convex,  and  the  horsq  becomes  permanently  unsound. 
Termination.  —  Laminitis  may  terminate  in  recovery  and 
practical  restoration   of  the   affected  parts,   or  there   may 

remain  a  convex  sole  and  a 
chronic  soreness  with  a  ten- 
dency for  the  hoof  to  grow 
in  an  unnatural  shape,  see 
figure  73.  The  wall  be- 
comes wrinkled  trans- 
versely, and  grows  un- 
evenly. 

Treatment.  —  These  are 
usually  serious  cases,  and 
should  always  have  the 
benefit  of  professional  attendance  and  skill  if  such  is  ob- 
tainable. Any  general  treatment  that  could  be  suggested 
might  be  unwise  in  some  cases,  and  unwisely  applied  in 
others. 

A  treatment  that  is  frequently  satisfactory  consists  in 
keeping  the  feet  wet  with  cold  water  (45°  to  50°  F.)  for  a 
long  period  of  time,  several  days  if  necessary.  Sometimes 
this  may  be  done  by  standing  the  horse  in  a  shallow  stream, 
preferably  with  a  soft  bottom.  Some  good  veterinarians 
prefer  to  use  warm  water  for  an  hour  at  the  beginning, 


Fig.  73.  —  A  Foundered  Hoof 
An  old  case. 


LAMINITIS  227 

-then  change  to  cold  water  and  continue  the  cold  water  as 
suggested.  When  a  horse  must  be  kept  in  the  stable,  he 
should  have  a  large  box  stall  with  deep,  soft  bedding.  If 
he  is  compelled  to  stand  for  any  great  length  of  time  in  order 
to  keep  the  feet  in  cold  water,  then  he  should  be  supported 
by  a  sling.  Severe  cathartics  should  be  avoided  —  but  it  may 
be  desirable  to  give  very  mild  doses  of  aloes,  or  raw  linseed 
oil.  A  dose  of  the  former  for  this  purpose  would  be  one  half 
ounce  or  less;  the  dose  of  the  latter  would  be  about  one  pint, 
either  repeated  as  necessary.  Coupled  -^ith  this,  two  to  three 
or  even  four  ounces  of  saltpeter  may  be  given,  dissolved 
in  drinking  water,  or  as  a  drench  in  a  pint  of  water  three 
times  daily  for  acute  cases.  Ordinarily  the  shoes  should  be 
removed.  The  toe,  if  long,  should  be  shortened,  but  the 
sole  should  not  be  thinned  or  otherwise  interfered  with.  If 
the  horse  is  compelled  to  stand,  he  may  stand  more  com- 
fortably with  shoes  that  are  high  in  the  center  and  recking 
backward  toward  thin,  flat  heels.  If  the  pain  is  extreme, 
and  not  controlled  by  the  resting  upon  soft  bedding  and 
continuous  application  of  cold  water,  then  some  prepara- 
tion of  opium  should  be  given  —  as  a  matter  of  humanity, 
if  for  no  other  reason.  The  dose  of  laudanum  is  about  one 
ounce,  and  may  be  repeated  two  or  three  times  a  day,  if 
necessary  to  control  the  extreme  pain.  If  an  acute  case 
can  be  induced  to  lie  down,  even  by  throwing  some  horses 
by  ropes  the  first  time,  great  relief  and  rapid  improvement 
in  respiration,  pulse,  and  pain  are  soon  noted. 

Prevention.  —  Intelligent  care  will  prevent  most  ordi- 
nary cases  of  laminitis. 

Accustom  horses  to  markedly  changed  conditions  gradu- 
ally. This  applies  especially  in  case  of  fat  and  idle  horses 
put  to  work  and  to  country  horses  put  on  city  pavement. 

Keep  the  heated  horse  out  of  cold  winds  and  cold  water. 
Avoid  overfeeding  and  overdriving,  and  feed  a  hot  horse 
or  tired  horse  very  cautiously. 


LECTURE  XLVII 
LYMPHANGITIS 

Definition.  —  Lymphangitis  is  an  inflammation  of  the 
various  lymphatic  tissues.  It  appears  suddenly;  is  quite 
painful;   and  rarely  fatal. 

Cause  and  history.  —  This  disease  usually  appears  among 
heavy  horses  of  sluggish  temperament.  Such  horses  seem 
very  much  more  susceptible  than  horses  of  different  type. 
It  almost  invariably  occurs  among  horses  that  are  full  fed 
and  after  a  period  of  idleness,  perhaps  only  a  day. 

Symptoms.  —  This  disease  usually  makes  its  appearance 
with  a  chill  which  is  followed  by  fever.  The  horse  is  uneasy 
and  in  evident  discomfort.  A  sudden  swelling  appears  on 
the  upper  portion  of  the  hind  limb  on  the  inside.  The 
swelling  increases  gradually  and  extends  around  the  limb 
and  then  downward.  Certain  l}'mph  glands  high  up  in  the 
inguinal  region  or  groin  become  involved.  These  ma}'  even 
develop  abscesses,  but  this  is  very  rare.  There  may  even 
occur  actual  death  of  the  patient  from  septic  infection  in 
rare  cases. 

The  horse  is  quite  lame,  and  the  affected  limb  is  very 
sensitive  to  the  touch.  The  horse  perspires  freely.  The 
pulse  is  increased.  Respiration  is  hurried  somewhat,  and 
the  temperature  is  raised.  The  bowels  are  constipated. 
The  urine  is  usually  dark,  colored,  and  scanty. 

This  disease  develops  for  about  two  days  and  maintains 
its  severity  for  about  the  same  period,  and  then  there  is  a 
gradual  abatement  in  typical  cases.  IMost  of  the  swelling 
in  the  limb  subsides,  and  as  this  general  swelling  goes  down, 
the  inflamed  lymph  vessels  appear  as  long,  cordy  swellings. 
There  usually  remains  some  thickening  and  enlargement  of 

228 


LYMPHANGITIS  229 

the  leg,  and  this  disease  is  apt  to  recur,  each  time  leaving 
something  of  an  increased  enlargement  until  there  is  finally 
developed  what  is  commonly  known  as  elephant  leg. 

Lymphangitis  might  possibly  be  confused  with  simple 
dropsy  or  with  farcy.  It  can  be  distinguished  from  simple 
dropsy  by  its  acute  pain,  its  fever,  lameness,  and  cordy 
swellings.  Lymphangitis  may  be  distinguished  from  farcy 
by  its  more  acute  fever  and  more  acute  local  trouble  in  the 
leg;  by  its  early  inflammation  of  lymph  glands  in  the  groin, 
and  absence  of  farcy  buds. 

Prevention.  —  The  grain  ration  should  l)e  very  greatly 
reduced  during  idle  periods.  This  is  true  for  any  horse  in 
fairly  good  flesh,  and  particularly  true  of  horses  of  the  type 
that  has  been  mentioned  as  especially  subject  to  lym- 
phangitis. 

Treatment.  —  Prompt  and  vigorous  treatment  seems  to 
abort  the  disease  in  a  fair  proportion  of  cases.  Hot  fomen- 
tations over  the  swollen  part,  to  be  continued  for  several 
hours,  is  one  of  the  most  important  parts  of  the  treatment. 
Between  the  periods  of  fomentation  there  should  be  given 
vigorous  friction,  rubbing  upward,  and  long-continued  light 
exercise.  If  the  horse  is  able  to  walk,  he  should  be  kept 
moving  about  slowly  for  several  hours  at  a  time.  During 
the  first  3  or  4  days  and  until  the  active  symptoms  abate, 
and  until  the  horse  is  again  receiving  normal  exercise,  the 
food  should  be  light  and  laxative.  Later  the  horse  may  be 
returned  to  full  feed. 

Bleeding  is  advocated  by  good  authorities  for  acute 
cases  with  high  fever.  Four  or  five  quarts  may  be  drawn 
for  this  purpose  from  the  jugular  vein.  A  moderate  physic 
should  be  given:  e.g.  4  to  8  drams  of  aloes  in  a  physic 
ball  or  J  pound  Epsom  salts  dissolved  in  a  pint  or  so  of 
water  3  times  a  day  may  be  substituted  for  the  aloes.  Two- 
ounce  doses  of  saltpeter  should  be  given  3  times  a  day,  for 
one  or  two  days,  each  dose  given  either  as  a  drench  dis- 
solved in  two  pints  of  water,  or  it  may  be  conveniently 
given  in  the  drinking  water  if  the  horse  will  take  it  so. 


230  VETERINARY  STUDIES 

Prognosis.  —  Lymphangitis  usually  ends  in  recovery  so 
far  as  the  general  disturbances  are  concerned.  Something 
may  be  estimated  concerning  the  probable  duration  of  ill- 
ness by  noting  the  severity  of  the  chill  which  comes  at  the 
beginning  of  the  attack. 


LECTURE  XLVIII 
PARTURIENT   PARALYSIS    (MILK   FEVER) 

Causes.  —  Predisposing  and  precipitating. 

Predisposing  causes.  —  Age  (matiirit}^),  heavy  feeding  and 
milking  qualities,  pregnancy,  easy  delivery,  lack  of  exercise, 
and  high  temperature  in  stables. 

The  cow  that  is  in  the  prime  of  life,  with  her  third  or 
fourth  calf,  and  that  is  a  heavy  feeder  and  milker,  is  the  one 
most  subject  to  this  disease.  Cows  in  thin  flesh,  that 
have  been  underfed  during  pregnancy,  are  not  liable  to 
have  this  disease.     Neither  are  young  heifers  nor  old  cows. 

Precipitating  causes.  —  Delivery,  sudden  increase  of  gland 
activity  in  the  udder,  disturbance  of  circulation,  anxiety, 
exposure  to  cold  and  damp. 

Schmidt's  theory  was  that  certain  chemical  poisons  are 
formed  in  the  udder,  absorbed  into  the  blood,  and  circulated 
throughout  the  body,  reaching  the  brain  and  spinal  cord 
through  the  general  circulation,  and  producing  the  general 
symptoms  of  paralysis  of  sensation  and  motion.  Dr.  Schmidt 
noticed  that  the  greatest  mortality  occurs  when  the  disease 
appears  very  soon  after  birth,  and  incidentally  that  is  the 
period  of  most  abundant  colostrum  in  the  udder. 

A  still  later  theory,  supported  by  the  results  of  various 
lines  of  treatment,  is  that  milk  fever  is  essentially  a  dis- 
turbance of  blood  pressure.  If  by  any  means  the  amount 
of  blood  held  by  the  udder  is  limited,  milk  fever  is  prevented. 
If  blood  is  forced  out  of  the  udder  by  pressure  in  the  milk 
ducts,  the  disease  is  usually  cured. 

Symptoms.  —  Early,  or  warning,  and  diagnostic,  or  positive. 

Early  symptoms.  —  Uneasiness,  sudden  constipation,  eyes 
stupid  or  wild,  tail  switches  uneasily,  milk  flow  checked. 

231 


232 


VETERINARY  STUDIES 


Such  symptoms  should  warn  of  danger,  if  occurring  during 
first  five  days  after  calving,  or  within  two  days  before. 

Diagnostic  si/mptoms.  —  Patient  goes  down;  loses  sensa- 
tion and  voluntary  motion;  pupils  dilate;  cow  lies  in  a 
peculiar  position  with  head  in  flank  and  unable  to  swallow; 
pulse  is  at  first  bounding  and  full  —  later  depressed. 

Prevention.  —  This  is  always  more  satisfactory  than 
treatment,  and  is  especiall^v  applicable  to  milk  fever.     For  a 


Fig.  74.  —  Parturient  Paralysis — Milk  Fever.     (M.  H.  R.) 
Early  stage.     Unsteady  on  hind  legs. 

heavy  milker,  sudden  changes  in  diet  should  be  avoided. 
Any  change  should  usualh'  be  toward  one  lighter  and  more 
laxative.  It  is  sometimes  advisable  to  put  especially  sus- 
ceptible cows  up  from  pasture  on  to  light,  dry  feed.  Food 
should  be  light,  laxative,  easily  digested,  and  small  or 
moderate  in  quantity.  A  mild  laxative  (a)  may  be  given 
2  to  5  days  before  calving,  and  a  cathartic  (6)  within  12 
hours  after  calving.  For  {a)  give  one  quart  raw  linseed  oil. 
For  (6)  give  1  to  2  pounds  of  Epsom  salts  with  2  to  5  ounces 
powdered  ginger,  the  dose  depending  on  size  of  cow   and 


J 


PARTURIENT  PARALYSIS  (MILK  FEVER) 


233 


condition  of  the  bowels.  Allow  cows  abundant  exercise 
during  the  last  month  of  pregnancy,  and,  if  a  cow  is  nervous, 
leave  the  calf  near  her  for  a  few  days. 

Usually  there  should  be  little  or  no  milk  drawn  before 
calving  and  but  little  removed  during  the  first  twenty-four 
hours  after  calving,  not  more  than  the  calf  would  take 
naturally.  This  is  especially  important  as  a  preventive  of 
milk  fever  with  high-type  dairy  cows,  and  is  satisfactory  if 
the  plan  is  followed  with  some  intelligence. 


Bss-;:^?s^-.'*C5..5'J'**^BBBI 

■|PIPBP^K|^    ~  ''~^ 

"» 

^^HF^S^f'*^*?^ 

^^^^^H^gs^^ 

.^ 

•^  _ 

f 

...■^■nt           ^i;  ■  > 

M«^  '  '*^ 

Fig.  75.  —  Parturient  Paralysis.     (M.  H.R.) 
Later  stage.    Head  held  unsteadily. 


Treatment.  —  These  cases  require  skill  in  treatment,  and 
the  affected  animals  are  usually  valuable.  For  these 
reasons  stockmen  should  not  treat  these  cases  if  com- 
petent veterinary  services  may  be  had.  A  line  of  treatment 
is  suggested  here  because  cases  often  occur  where  it  is  not 
possible  to  obtain  professional  assistance. 

The  patient  must  not  be  allowed  to  lie  flat  on  the  side, 
but  should  be  propped  up  by  means  of  bags  of  sand,  bran, 
or  hay,  so  that  she  lies  on  the  sternum.  If  the  head  is 
"thrown  around  violently,  it  should  be  supported  by  means 


234 


VETERINARY   STUDIES 


of  a  rope  tied  to  some  overhead  support.  The  cow  must 
also  be  kept  thoroughly  warm  and  dry.  In  bad  cases, 
equalize  circulation  by  vigorous  applications  to  skin;  e.g. 
mustard  and  turpentine.  Retain  heat  in  cold  weather  by 
four  or  five  blankets.  Preserve  quiet ;  draw  urine  twice  daily 
with  catheter,  and  use  large  quantities  of  slighth^  irritating 
rectal  injections  repeated  several  times  daily,  if  necessary. 

Give  no  medicine  or  liquid  food  by  the  mouth  except  as 
directed  by  a  competent  veterinarian.  This  is  because  of 
difficulty  in  swallowing  and  the  danger  of  producing  fatal 
pneumonia  in  a  case  that  should  have  recovered. 


Fig.  76.  —  Parturient  Paralysis. 
Cow  very  stupid.    Skin  has  lost  sensation.    Head  in  the  flank.     StilJ  later  stage. 


Schmidt's  treatment  was  the  first  of  our  modern  udder 
infection  treatments,  and  is  directed  to  the  local  seat  of 
trouble.     It  has  been  very  successful. 

The  udder  should  be  well  brushed,  then  placed  on  a  clean 
towel  or  piece  of  oilcloth  and  disinfected  with  1  to  1000 
corrosive  sublimate  in  water,  or  3  per  cent  lysol  or  creolin, 
or  5  per  cent  carbolic  acid.  Hands  of  the  operator  and 
the  teat  tube,  rubber  tubing,  and  funnel  should  all  be  dis- 
infected, the  two  latter  by  boiling.  After  the  teat  tube  is 
disinfected,  it  should  not  be  carelessly  handled  or  come  in 
contact  with  anything  that  can  contaminate  it.  Bacterial 
cleanliness   is   of  the   utmost   importance   in   the    Schmidt 


PARTURIENT  PARALYSIS   (MILK  FEVER)  235 

treatment,  and   also  in  the    air-injection    treatment  to    be 
mentioned  later. 

About  2j  drams  iodide  of  potash  are  dissolved  in  one 
quart  of  boiled  water.  One  fourth  of  this  is  injected  by 
means  of  a  syringe  or  by  means  of  rubber  tubing  and  a 
milk  tube  through  each  teat  into  the  udder.  Each  quarter 
is  thoroughly  milked  out  just  before  the  injection  is  made. 
The  solution  should  be  injected  at  about  105-8°  F.,  and  left 
in  the  udder.  The  temperature  should  not  be  guessed  at. 
It  can  be  determined  accurately  by  means  of  a  dairy  ther- 
mometer. 

Treatment  may  be  repeated  in  3  or  12  hours  if  needed. 

Air  treatment.  —  The  injection  treatment  for  milk  fever 
has  passed  gradually  through  several  stages  from  iodide 
potash  solution  (Schmidt  treatment)  to  various  other  solu- ' 
tions,  then  oxygen  gas,  and  finally  simple,  clean  air.  This 
air-injection  treatment  is  the  one  now  in  most  common  use. 
Apparently  full  distention  of  the  udder  is  the  essential 
thing,  and  it  matters  but  little  as  to  what  is  used  to  distend, 
providing  it  be  clean  and  not  irritating.  Great  care  in 
cleanhness  is  necessary  to  avoid  infection  of  the  interior 
of  teat  and  udder  with  germs  which  might  cause  garget  or 
septicaemia  (blood  poisoning).  The  udder  is  given  the  same 
preparation  as  for  Schmidt's  treatment.  Air  is  injected  by 
a  special  syringe  in  which  air  is  filtered  through  cotton 
before  entering  the  udder.  The  teat  tube  must  be  well 
boiled  and  the  utmost  care  used  as  to  clean  handling  and 
the  injection  of  clean  air.  The  quarters  are  pumped  full 
of  the  filtered  air;  it  is  well  to  give  the  udder  massage 
treatment  in  order  to  disseminate  air  through  the  milk 
ducts  during  the  injection  process.  A  broad  tape  is  tied 
around  the  teat  and  left  on  for  about  six  hours. 

The  injection  may  be  repeated  in  three  to  six  hours  if 
necessary.  In  an  emergency  an  ordinary  bicycle  pump 
connected  by  rubber  tubing  to  a  milk  tube  may  be  used, 
but  this,  of  course,  does  not  filter  the  air. 

Prognosis.  —  It  is  difficult  to  make  an  accurate  estimate. 


236  VETERINARY   STUDIES 

Sudden  and  unexpected  variations  occur.  Loss  under  the 
Schmidt  or  air  treatment  is  not  large.  The  prospect  is  more 
unfavorable  if:  the  case  develops  soon  after  calving;  it 
develops  rapidly  and  seems  to  overwhelm  the  system;  de- 
cided loss  of  animal  heat;  tympanites  or  bloating;  convul- 
sions; cornea  becomes  insensible;  lower  lip  hangs  loosely. 
Favorable  if:  circulation  remains  good;  feces  are  passed; 
patient  attempts  to  rise  or  eat;  slight  fever  while  circulation 
is  still  weak;  if  rectal  or  vaginal  irritation  causes  a  dis- 
charge of  feces  or  urine. 


MISCELLANEOUS   DISEASES 

LECTURE   XLIX 

LAMENESS 

Definition.  —  Any  irregularity  of  the  gait,  regardless  of 
cause  or  degree. 

Locating  the  lameness.  —  It  is  usually  quite  easy  for  any 
■observer  to  recognize  that  an  animal  is  lame,  provided  the 
lameness  is  at  all  decided,  but  there  are  many  cases  where 
the  lameness  is  so  very  slight  that  it  is  difficult  for  an  ex- 
pert to  locate  it  or  even  be  sure  that  the  animal  is  lame. 

Side.  —  A  very  common  error  is  that  of  locating  the 
lameness  on  the  wrong  side.  This  is  easily  avoided  if  one 
remembers  that  the  head  and  weight  of  the  body  in  general 
come  down  most  noticeably  with  the  sound  limb.  For  in- 
stance, a  horse  being  lame  in  the  left  front  leg  will  drop 
very  evidently  as  he  lands  upon  the  right  front  leg. 

Gait.  —  Some  forms  of  lameness  are  detected  with  great 
difficulty  when  the  animal  is  walking,  but  are  easily  seen 
when  the  horse  is  trotting.  It  is  usually  conceded  that  the 
latter  is  the  best  gait  for  diagnostic  purposes,  although  the 
observer  should  study  the  movements  at  both  walk  and 
trot  if  possible.     The  pacing  gait  is  rather  confusing. 

The  test.  —  The  animal  should  be  tried  on  both  hard  and 
soft  ground,  and  on  side  hill.  If  the  lameness  is  in  the  foot, 
the  lameness  is  most  marked  when  the  animal  travels  on 
hard  ground.  On  the  contrary,  when  a  horse  is  lame  in 
the  shoulder,  he  is  apt  to  travel  with  great  difficulty  in  deep 
mud  or  in  snow. 

General  examination.  —  The  horse  should  be  examined 
unblanketed  in  the  stall,   making    him  step  from  side  to 

237 


238 


VETERINARY  STUDIES 


side,  and  noting  how  he  stands  at  rest.  Then  the  horse 
should  be  taken  out  and  observed  while  walking  and  trot- 
ting, coming  toward,  passing  by,  and  going  from  the  observer, 
the  latter  observing  carefully  the  movements  of  the  entire 
body  and  the  use  of  each  limb.  It  is  especially  important 
to  observe  head  and  hips  in  solving  the  first  i^roblem  of 
locating  the  diseased  limb. 

It  should  always  be  borne  in  mind  that  the  front  foot  is 
an  especially  common  seat  of  lameness. 

FROM    BONE    DISEASES 

Bony  growths.  —  Splints,  spavins,  ringbones,  etc.,  are 
simply  developments  of  bone  tissue,  the  result  of  an  inflam- 
mation  of  the   periosteum.     These    are    all    recognized    as 


^■!*?V4aH^, 

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Fig.  77.  — Ringbones.     {M.  H.  R.) 

1.  Ringbone  and  sidebone,  with  general  anchylosis. 

2.  Ringbone  and  sidebone,  with  general  anchylosis  and  marked  bony  enlarge- 
ment. 

3.  High  ringbone  with  anchylosis  on  first  and  second  phalanges. 

4.  Low  ringbone  with  sidebone,  and  anchylosis  of  the  second  and  third  phalanges. 

5.  Ringbone  with  sidebone,  and  unilateral  anchylosis. 


LAMENESS  239 

forms  of  unsoundness,  and  usually  cause  lameness.  This  in- 
flammation may  have  its  origin  in  bruises  or  other  injuries, 
or  possibly  the  inflammation  in  this  tissue  may  bethe  result 
of  an  extending  inflammation  from  some  adjoining  tissue, 
but  in  any  case  the  result  is  usually  a  projecting  develop- 
ment of  bony  tissue. 

Splmts.  —  These  appear  as  small  tumors  along  the  meta- 
carpal bones,  usually  at  the  junction  of  the  large  and  small 
metacarpals.  They  may  be  of  various  shapes  and  sizes, 
but  are  usually  small.  They  are  generally  more  serious 
when  located  near  the  knee.  Occasionally  there  appears 
what  is  known  as  a  pegged  splint,  in  which  the  growth 
extends  across  the  back  of  the  cannon,  beneath  the  sus- 
pensory ligament. 

The  lameness  which  results  from  splints  is  rather  easily 
recognized,  first,  by  locating  the  splint,  noting  the  sensitive- 
ness on  pressure  over  this  point.  A  peculiarity  of  the 
lameness  is  that  the  horse  walks  nearly  or  quite  sound,  but 
trots  very  lame,  especially  on  hard  ground. 

There  is  a  natural  tendency  to  recover.  Lameness  from 
splints  is  rarely  seen  in  aged  horses  for  this  reason. 

When  the  splint  appears  very  close  to  the  knee,  or  in  the 
pegged  form,  there  is  less  prospect  of  natural  recovery,  and 
with  the  latter  form  lameness  is  very  apt  to  be  permanent, 
unless  relieved  by  surgical  means. 

Ringbone.  —  This  is  characterized  by  enlargement  of  some 
portion  of  the  pastern  bones.  It  may  be  in  front,  behind, 
on  either  side,  or  extending  entirely  around  this  region.  It 
may  be  located  near  the  crown  of  the  hoof  or  very  much 
higher,  and  we  thus  have  ringbone  divided  artificially  into 
two  classes,  high  and  low. 

Ringbones  are  very  much  more  serious  forms  of  unsound- 
ness than  splints,  as  they  are  more  apt  to  be  permanent  in 
effect,  and  even  if  the  soreness  be  relieved,  there  is  liable  to 
be  a  mechanical  lameness  because  of  a  stiffened  joint. 
This  unsoundness  and  the  lameness  resulting  from  it  are 
very  easily  detected. 


240  VETERINARY   STUDIES 

Sidebones.  —  Sidebone  is  an  abnormal  condition  of  the 
lateral  cartilages,  characterized  by  a  firmness  under  pres- 
sure of  these  cartilages  —  which  should  be  quite  elastic. 
The  firmness  is  due  primarily  to  a  deposit  of  lime  in  the 
cartilage  structure.  Sidebones  are  detected  as  bonelikc 
structures  which  appear  above  the  crown  of  the  hoof  and 
just  beneath  the  skin  on  either  side.  They  may  cause  lame- 
ness during  the  period  of  inflammation  and  hardening.  In 
some  cases  the  lameness  is  persistent. 

Spavin.  —  The  cause  of  lameness  which  we  recognize 
under  the  name  of  bone  spavin  is  an  abnormal  condition 
of  the  tarsal  bones  at  the  lower,  inner,  front  portion  of  the 
hock.  There  is  usually  something  of  an  enlargement,  vary- 
ing from  a  very  small  growth,  commonly  called  by  horse- 
men a  jack,  to  a  very  large  growth  which  every  one  recog- 
nizes as  bone  spavin. 

There  is  another  form  of  bone  spavin  in  which  there  is  a 
slight  or  possibly  no  external  development  at  all.  In  this 
form  of  spavin  there  may  be  diseases  of  the  bones  in  the 
deeper  parts;  particularly  erosions  of  the  articular  cartilages. 
Bone  spavins  have  a  tendency  to  recover  without  treat- 
ment, although  in  many  cases  the  period  required  for  natural 
recovery  is  very  long,  extending  through  a  period  of  years. 
In  other  cases  recovery  can  never  occur.  Recovery  when 
brought  about  by  natural  or  artificial  conditions  implies 
that  certain  of  the  tarsal  bones  have  united  in  the  process 
called,  technically,  anchylosis,  and  the  inflamed  surfaces  are 
no  longer  rubbing  together  as  the  limb  moves. 

Many  bone  spavins  doubtless  appear  as  the  result  of 
slight  injuries  in  susceptible  subjects,  particularly  those  that 
have  a  strong  hereditary  tendency  to  diseases  of  this  kind. 

Bone  spavin  is  one  of  the  most  serious  forms  of  unsound- 
ness of  the  organs  of  locomotion. 

Symptoms.  —  A  spavined  horse  steps  on  the  toe,  and 
carries  the  hock  joint  with  as  little  movement  as  possible. 
The  lameness  usually  disappears  or  at  least  greatly  im- 
proves with  exercise. 


LAJMENESS  241 

^  What  is  known  as  the  hock  test  is  made  by  holding  up  the 
limb,  with  the  hock  sharply  bent,  for  several  minutes. 
Th'.n  the  horse  is  started  suddenly.     In  case  of  spavin  the 


Fig.  78.  —  Sideboxes.     (M.  H.  R.) 

Due  to  an  inflammation  and  ossification  of    the    lateral  cartilages :   1,   normal 
OS  pedis  ;  2,  3,  4,  varjing  types  of  sidebones. 

first  few  steps  are  very  lame.  Old  horses  without  spavin 
may  respond  to  this  test  and  lead  to  error  if  one  is  not 
careful. 

FROM  SYNOVIAL  MEMBRANES 
Synovial  sacs.  —  The  ordinary  A\ind  puffs  of  the  ankle, 
and  bog  spavins  and  thoroughpins  at  the  hock,  are  typical 
illustrations  of  enlarged  synovial  sacs.  They  are  not  usually 
the  cause  of  lameness,  but  are  to  be  regarded  rather  as 
symptoms. 

Wind  puffs  usually  indicate  considerable  amount  of  hard 
road  work. 

Bog  spavi7is.  — These  are  enlargements  of  the  synovial 
sac  of  the  hock  joint,  and  appear  at  the  inner  and  front  part 
of  the  hock.     They  are  often  hereditary. 

Thoroughpins  are  very  similar  to  bog  spa\'ins  and  wind 
puffs,  except  in  location.  Thoroughpins  appear  at  the  upper 
and  back  part  of  the  hock.  They  may  or  may  not  connect 
with  the  synovial  sac  of  the  hock  joint. 

Open  joint.  —  Lameness  from  open  joint  is  quite  com- 
mon among  city  horses.  This  usually  results  from  punc- 
tures of  the  synovial  sacs  and  the  entrance  of  foreign  matter, 
resulting  in  an  acute  inflammation  or  synovitis.  This  form 
of  lameness  can  usually  be  very  easily  detected,  and  the 


242  VETERINARY  STUDIES 

cause  recognized.  It  is  very  serious  under  all  circumstances, 
and  frequently  results  in  loss  of  the  animal. 

Curb.  —  This  is  a  result  of  an  injury  or  strain  at  the 
back  of  the  hock  joint,  and  is  characterized  at  first  by  a  hot, 
sensitive  sweUing  just  back  of  the  lowest  part  of  the  hock 
joint.  After  the  period  of  swelling  and  inflammation  sub- 
sides, there  is  apt  to  remain  a  hard  tumor,  particularly  on 
what  is  known  as  curby  hocks.  In  cases  of  young  animals 
given  proper  treatment  the  remaining  enlargement  may  be 
very  slight  or  may  practically  disappear. 

Capped  hock.  —  Capped  hock  is  not  usually  a  cause  or 
condition  of  lameness;  but  is  mentioned  at  this  place  for 
other  reasons.  This  is  an  unusual  prominence  at  the  point 
of  the  hock,  and  produced  by  bruises.  Some  horses  get  it 
by  backing  up  against  the  stalls  and  striking  so  as  to  in- 
jure the  point  of  the  hock.  Other  cases  are  produced  in 
car  shipments.  In  other  cases  there  seems  to  be  a  natural 
tendency,  and  the  disorder  is  brought  about  by  very  slight 
injuries.  The  first  swelling  may  usually  be  reduced  by 
prompt  treatment,  but  it  returns  with  very  slight  injury, 
and  after  several  attacks  is  apt  to  be  permanent.  This  does 
not  injure  horses  for  actual  use,  but  is  unsightly,  and  ma- 
terially reduces  the  sale  value. 

Shoe  boil.  —  This  appears  as  an  enlargement  in  the  point 
of  the  elbow  or  superior  extremity  of  the  ulna.  It  is  very 
similar  to  capped  hock  in  cause,  character,  and  subsequent 
history.  Shoe  boils  are  unsightly  and  injure  sale,  but  do 
not  cause  lameness. 


LECTURE  L 
SOUNDNESS 

If  at  any  time  ahorse  has  any  disease  which  either  actually 
does  make  him  less  capable  of  his  proper  work,  or  which 
in  its  ordinary  progress  will  diminish  the  natural  usefulness 
of  the  animal,  this  is  unsoundness. 

Unsoundness.  —  The  above  is  a  very  comprehensive  defi- 
nition, but  soundness  is  usually  relative,  rarely  if  ever  abso- 
lute or  perfect.  What  we  mean  in  passing  a  horse  as 
sound,  is  that  he  is  practically  sound. 

Definition.  —  To  be  theoretically  sound  a  horse  must 
have  no  disease  or  other  condition  that  interferes  or  is 
likely  to  interfere  with  his  usefulness,  or  injure  his  selling 
value.  For  instance,  a  horse  may  have  a  spavin  which 
both  lessens  his  ability  to  work  and  injures  his  selling  value. 
The  same  would  be  true  of  heaves.  A  horse  may  have  a 
disease  from  which  he  will  recover.  At  the  time  of  the 
examination  he  will  be  technically  unsound. 

Unsoundness  may  be  temporary  or  permi^nent.  Tem- 
porary unsoundness  may  be  illustrated  by  an  influenza, 
from  which  a  horse  would  probably  recover,  or  light  sprains, 
or  a  bruised  ankle  —  from  interfering.  In  the  latter  case 
the  question  would  arise  at  once  as  to  whether  the  inter- 
fering was  due  to  faulty  conformation  or  to  faulty  shoeing, 
for  the  latter  could  be  easily  remedied.  In  the  former  case 
the  condition  would  be  serious;  in  the  latter  condition  it 
would  be  unimportant. 

Normal  conditions.  —  It  is  necessary  first  of  all  to  get 
familiar  with  the  usual  normal  and  unusual  normal  con- 
ditions and  appearances  for  comparison.  For  instance,  the 
hocks  may  be  perfectly  sound,  and  yet  have  peculiar  bony 

243 


244  VETERINARY  STUDIES 

development.  In  such  cases  it  will  generally  be  found  that 
both  hocks  are  alike.  The  knees  may  have  similar  peculiar 
development,  and  yet  be  perfecth'  soundo 

PRACTICAL    EXERCISE 

Examination.  —  An  examination  for  soundness  should  be 
S3^stematic  and  thorough,  although  it  may  be  rapidly  done. 
Examination  should  be  made  with  a  horse  in  the  stall;  as 
he  backs  out,  stands  at  rest  and  in  motion.     In  the  stall 


Fig.  79.  — Spavins.     Two  Types.     {M.H.R.) 

I.  Spavin  with  marked  bony  enlargement.     A,  metatarsals ;    B,  tarsals  with  en- 
largement and  anchylosis. 

II.  Blind  spavin.     Extensive  ulceration  of  articular  surfaces;    no  enlargement ; 
no  anchylosis.     2,   os  calcis  ;  3,  scaphoid  or  large  cuneiform. 

examine  to  see  whether  the  horse  Qvlhs  or  weaves,  or  has 
any  other  stable  habit  which  is  objectionable.  As  the  horse 
backs  out  of  the  stall,  he  may  show  peculiar  use  of  the  hind 
legs  or  imperfect  control,  due  to  serious  disorders  of  the 
nervous  system.  Very  frequently  the  first  intimation  of 
spavin  may  be  had  as  the  horse  is  made  to  step  from  side 
to  side,  particularly  as  he  steps  toward  the  spavined  leg. 

At  rest.  —  With  the  horse  at  rest  the  observer  should  begin 
in  front  and  examine  the  ears  for  hearing,  for  tumors  that 
may  develop  around  the  base,  for  split  ears,  etc. 


SOUNDNESS  245 

The  eyes  should  be  examined  to  test  the  sight,  bearing 
in  mind  that  moon  bHndness,  which  recurs  at  intervals 
and  leaves  the  eye  more  or  less  nearly  normal  between 
times,  still  shows  a  weakened  or  squinting  appearance  that 
is  suggestive.  Bear  in  mind  also  amaurosis,  which  may 
leave  the  eye  blind,  but  c|uite  natural  in  appearance. 

The  nasal  cJianibers  should  be  examined  for  ulcers,  scars, 
or  discharges  which  would  suggest  possible  glanders,  bear- 
ing in  mind  that  dishonest  dealers  sometimes  plug  the 
nostrils  with  a  sponge  to  prevent  the  appearance  of  sus- 
picious discharge. 

The  teeth  should  be  examined  for  evidences  of  cribbing, 
for  age,  and  for  a  condition  commonly  known  as  parrot 
mouth,  which  interferes  "^^dth  a  horse  feeding  in  pasture,  i.e. 
overhanging  upper  jaw  teeth. 

The  lips  should  be  examined  for  evidence  of  paralysis. 
The  glands  under  or  rather  between  the  portions  of  the 
lower  jaw  should  be  examined  particularly  with  reference 
to  glanders.     See  Glanders. 

The  poll  should  be  examined  for  scars  or  other  evidences 
of  present  or  previous  poll-evil. 

The  withers  should  be  examined  for  scars,  for  discharging 
sores,  and  other  evidences  of  fistulous  withers. 

The  shoulders  should  be  examined  for  sore  neck  and  par- 
ticularly so-called  collar  boils.  The  latter  are  either  flat  and 
broad  or  more  prominent  tumors,  which  will  usually  subject 
a  horse  to  sore  shoulders  whenever  he  is  put  to  work. 

The  elbow  should  be  examined  for  shoe  boil;  the  knee  for 
scars  or  what  is  commonly  known  as  broken  knee,  which 
indicates  that  the  horse  is  inclined  to  stumble,  and  also  for 
what  is  known  as  knee  spavin. 

The  cannon  or  shin  bones  must  be  examined  for  splints, 
and  behind  them  the  tendons  must  be  examined  for  evi- 
dences of  sprains  and  other  injuries  which  are  usually  indi- 
cated by  a  thickening  of  the  parts. 

Ankles  are  to  be  examined  for  evidences  of  interfering, 
and  fractures  or  other  injuries  of  the  sesamoid  bones  and 


246  VETERINARY  STUDIES 

attached  ligaments.  The  region  of  the  pastern  is  to  be 
examined  for  ringbones,  sidebones,  fractures,  and  evi- 
dences of  the  operation  known  as  nerving.  Evidences  of 
this  operation  are  found  in  scars  about  midway  of  the 
pastern  on  each  side,  just  at  the  edge  of  the  back  tendon. 
The  sides  of  the  back  tendons  should  also  be  examined  just 
above  the  ankle  for  scars,  which  would  suggest  another 
nerving  operation.  The  mere  fact  that  a  horse  has  been 
nerved,  whether  going  sound  at  the  time  of  examination  or 
not,  is  a  very  serious  objection.  This  operation  is  not 
usually  resorted  to  except  as  a  measure  of  last  resort,  and 
it  does  not  in  any  sense  cure  the  original  disease. 

While  passing  along  the  side  and  flank  the  breathing 
should  be  observed,  as  to  whether  it  is  even  and  regular, 
or  jerky,  suggesting  heaves.  The  flank  and  lower  part  of 
the  abdomen  must  be  examined  for  possible  ruptures. 

Stepping  behind  the  horse,  the  two  hips  are  compared  for 
evidences  of  fractures,  or  what  is  commonly  known  as 
hipped  or  hip  shot.  This  disorder  does  not  interfere  seri- 
ously with  the  horse's  working  ability,  but  gives  the  horse 
a  very  awkward  appearance  and  materially  lessens  the 
selling  value. 

The  hocks  must  be  examined  for  bog  and  bone  spavins, 
thoroughpins,  and  cur])s,  and  the  point  of  the  hock  for 
what  is  known  as  capped  hock.  The  same  examination  is 
made  of  the  cannon,  ankle,  and  pastern  as  for  the  front 
limbs. 

The  feet  should  all  be  examined  for  evidences  of  contrac- 
tion at  the  heels,  for  flatness  or  convexity  of  the  sole, 
founder,  navicular  disease,  and  other  diseases  of  the  feet 
which  are  easily  recognized.  Among  these  should  be 
named  quarter  and  toe  cracks,  and  serious  injuries  to  the 
crown  of  the  hoof  by  sharp  calks. 

In  motion.  —  The  horse  should  be  examined  while  walk- 
ing and  trotting.  The  movements  of  the  neck  and  head  are 
studied  as  he  comes  toward  the  observer;  then,  as  he  passes 
by,  the  movements  of  the  limbs  are  noted  as  to  the  height 


SOUNDNESS  247 

to  which  they  are  raised;  the  bend  of  the  joints,  whether 
easy  and  natural  or  otherwise.  The  way  in  which  the 
foot  lands  upon  the  ground,  whether  flat,  on  the  toe,  one 
side,  or  on  the  heel,  is  to  be  noted  and  considered.  As  the 
horse  passes  from  the  observer  the  movements  of  the  hips 
and  hind  legs  are  noted  with,  a  view  to  detecting  lameness 
in  those   parts.     Examination  in  motion  on  hard  road  or 


Fig.  so.     Navicular  Disease.     (M.  H.  R.) 

1.  Normal  na^ncular  bone. 

2.  Exostosis  (bony  enlargement)  with  fracture. 

3.  Exostosis  with  extensive  ulceration  of  the  articular  surface. 

4.  5,  6,  7.   Varj-ing  tj-pes  of  exostosis. 

pavement  should  be  made,  especially  to  bring  out  diseases 
of  the  feet.  Then  motion  in  deep  mud  or  in  snow  should 
be  studied.  If  these  are  not  available,  the  horse  should  be 
made  to  step  over  a  rail  or  plank  held  up  about  a  foot  from 
the  ground  in  order  to  detect  or  make  more  prominent  pos- 
sible soreness  or  lameness  in  the  shoulder  or  hip. 

The  lungs.  —  Finally,  the  horse  should  be  given  vigorous 
exercise  on  a  full  stomach.  For  instance,  a  run  to  a  heavy 
wagon,  or  a  short  run  uphill  to  determine  whether  the  lungs 
are  normal,  or,  in  other  words,  for  the  purpose  of  testing 
his  wind.  It  is  possible  to  partially  disguise  abnormal 
breathing  while  a  horse  is  at  rest,  but  it  is  practically  im- 
possible to  do  so  if  the  horse  is  given  violent  exercise,  and 


248  VETERINARY  STUDIES 

the   latter  should   preferably   be   done   after   feeding   and 
watering. 

SUMMARY 

The  most  common  and  obvious  forms  of  unsoundness 
are:  Bad  eyes;  glanders  shown  at  the  nose;  poll-evil,  just 
back  of  the  ears,  at  the  top  of  the  neck;  fistula  at  the 
withers;  heaves,  shown  in  breathing;  splints,  along  the 
cannon;  injured  tendons;  farcy  sores  on  limbs  or  body; 
bruised  ankles  from  interfering;  sidebone  and  ringbones  at 
the  pastern;  navicular  disease,  corns,  founder,  cracks,  etc., 
at  the  foot;  fractured  hip  (hipshot);  spavin  at  the  hock 
in  front,  and  curb  at  the  hock  behind. 


LECTURE   LI 
COMMON   DISEASES    OF   SWINE 

RHEUMATISM 

This  disease  is  rather  common  in  swine,  and  affects  either 
the  muscles  or  joints. 

Cause.  —  Frequently  due  to  cold,  damp  quarters,  and  yet 
cases  of  rheumatism  appear  under  the  most  favorable  con- 
ditions. It  is  not  thought  best  to  discuss  the  physiological 
chemistry  involved,  in  view  of  the  uncertainty  which  still 
exists. 

Symptoms.  —  Affected  animals  are  lame  and  sore.  The 
exact  symptoms  depend  of  course  upon  the  location.  Very 
frequently  the  ankle  joints  are  swollen  and  very  tender. 
There  is  a  rise  of  temperature  in  the  acute  cases.  Food  is 
refused  and  movements  are  very  painful.  This  disease  in 
swine,  as  in  other  animals,  exhibits  a  tendency  to  move 
about  from  one  limb  or  from  one  joint  to  another. 

Treatment.  —  Physic  freely;  e.g.  for  a  hog  weighing  150- 
200  pounds  give  2  ounces  Epsom  salts  or  2  ounces 
castor  oil,  or  2  compound  cathartic  pills.  Give  15  drops 
oil  of  gaultheria  in  ^  ounce  of  bland  oil,  like  linseed 
oil  or  sweet  oil.  Give  also  potassium  iodide  in  10-grain 
doses  3  times  a  day,  either  in  water  or  feed.  For  local 
effect  apply  over  the  joints  the  following  liniment:  8  oz. 
tincture  belladonna,  1  oz.  tincture  opium,  and  1  oz.  fluid 
extract  aconite.  This  treatment  should  be  applied  freely 
on  flannel  cloths  rung  out  of  hot  water  dry  as  possible. 
For  swollen  joints  that  are  not  especially  painful  a  blister 
gives  more  satisfactory  results. 

249 


250  VETERINARY   STUDIES 

POSTERIOR   PARALYSIS 

This  is  a  rather  common  and  serious  disease  affecting 
especially  swine  and  involving  the  hind  quarters.  In  most 
cases  it  is  probably  a  disorder  of  either  the  spinal  cord  or 
the  spinal  nerves. 

Causes.  —  Fracture  of  the  thigh  bone  sometimes  occurs 
in  connection  with  rachitis  (rickets),  and  is  mistaken  for 
paralysis.  Rachitis,  a  disease  of  the  bones,  may  appear,  hke 
paralysis,  in  growing  swine.  Some  cases  are  due  to  injury 
of  the  spinal  cord.  This  disease  often  appears  in  heavy 
hogs  after  shipment  by  rail.  Other  cases  are  due  to  slow 
organic  disease  of  the  spinal  cord.  The  direct  cause  of 
those  cases  which  depend  upon  organic  diseases  of  the  cord 
or  spinal  nerves  is  not  known.  A  common  type  develops 
suddenly  in  old  and  heavy  swine,  particularly  those  in  high 
flesh,  and  is  due  to  simple  constipation. 

Symptoms.  —  Some  cases  develop  suddenly;  others  de- 
velop gradually  during  several  days  and  even  weeks.  The 
cases  which  develop  slowly  show  at  first  irregular  gait  be- 
hind. The  hind  legs  may  cross  in  walking;  there  is  diffi- 
culty in  rising  and  general  lack  of  control  for  the  hind  legs. 
If  the  case  develops  suddenly,  there  is  inability  to  use 
the  hind  limbs,  which  are  limp  and  weak,  not  unlike  affected 
limbs  of  horses  having  azoturia.  Hogs  affected  with  this 
disease  usually  retain  good  appetite,  and  are  lively  aside 
from  the  posterior  paralysis.  They  are  apparently  in  good 
health  for  weeks,  having  perfect  control  of  the  front  limbs. 
If  they  move  at  all,  the  hind  limbs  are  simply  dragged. 
This  trouble  is  easily  distinguished  from  rheumatism  in 
most  cases  by  absence  of  pain. 

Treatment.  —  A  decided  physic,  10  to  20  grains  of  calomel 
in  a  small  piece  of  pork;  or  2  oz.  castor  oil  with  2  droi)S  of 
croton  oil,  well  mixed.  If  the  case  is  persistent  and  the 
animal  valuable,  then  potassium  iodide  should  be  given  in 
10-grain  doses  3  times  a  day,  either  as  a  drench  or  in 
the  drink.  Turpentine  should  be  applied  over  the  loins 
until  the  skin  becomes  sore. 


COMMON  DISEASES   OF  SWIXE  251 

CONGESTION    OF    THE    LUNGS 

This  is  a  rather  common  affliction  and  very  apt  to  be  fatal. 
It  is  simply  an  engorgement  of  the  pulmonary  blood  vessels 
(hypersemia). 

Cause.  —  Active  exercise  of  swine  i  i  high  flesh. 

Symptoms.  —  These  cases  are  usually  acute  and  apt  to 
end  fatally.  The  symptoms  are  those  of  suffocation. 
There  is  marked  distress;  respiration  is  very  rapid,  even 
the  mouth  being  held  open  in  an  effort  to  get  air.  The 
pulse  is  very  rapid  and  weak,  and  the  animal  is  apt  to  fall 
suddenly. 

On  examination  post  mortem  the  pulmonary  vessels  are 
engorged  and  the  lungs  are  dark.  There  is  no  definite  exu- 
date which  distinguishes  this  from  pneumonia,  pneumonia 
being  an  inflammation  of  the  lung  tissues. 

Treatment.  —  Stimulant:  Use  aromatic  spirits  ammonia 
1  dram,  alcohol  4  drams,  in  water,  repeated  at  short  in- 
tervals; for  example,  15  minutes  to  one  half  hour.  The 
animal  must  be  kept  warm  and  the  extremities  rubbed 
vigorously. 

CONSTIPATION    IN    SWINE 

Constipation  is  a  rather  frequent  cause  of  trouble  among 
swine.  Mature  hogs  become  easily  affected  when  unwisely 
fed  and  limited  as  to  exercise. 

Cause.  —  This  trouble  is  very  frequently  associated  with 
high  feeding  and  lack  of  exercise.  This  is  especially  true 
when  the  food  is  dry  and  lacking  in  laxative  material. 
Hogs  are  rarely  affected  by  this  when  on  grass  or  clover 
or  when  receiving  roots  or  pumpkins  or  other  fresh  vege- 
tables in  the  feeding  yards. 

Symptoms.  —  The  affected  hog  is  restless,  and  occasionally 
strains  as  though  trying  to  pass  manure.  The  manure  is 
hard  and  frequently  covered  with  mucus.  The  hog  becomes 
dull  and  loses  appetite. 

Treatment.  —  Give  1  to  3  ounces  of  castor  oil,  depending 
on  the  size  of  the  hog,  or  as  a  substitute  for  the  oil  give 


252  VETERINARY  STUDIES 

Epsom  salts,  in  1  to  3  ounce  doses  dissolved  in  warm  water 
and  administered  as  a  drench.  One  to  3  drops  of  croton 
oil  may  be  added  to  the  castor  oil  in  unusual  cases.  For 
mild  cases  of  simple  constipation  old-fashioned  senna  tea, 
coupled  with  rectal  injections  of  warm  water,  is  usually  very 
satisfactory.  It  is  necessary  to  exercise  great  caution  in 
giving  liquid  medicine  to  hogs  on  account  of  the  danger 
of  suffocation  caused  by  drawing  liquid  into  the  lungs 
while  squealing. 

A  very  simple  way  is  to  cut  a  hole  in  the  toe  of  an  old 
shoe;  insert  the  toe  into  the  mouth,  and  allow  the  hog  to 
chew  it  while  the  medicine  is  poured  in  slowly  and  carefully. 
A  short  piece  of  ordinary  garden  hose  with  a  funnel  in- 
serted at  one  end  is  also  very  satisfactory  for  this  purpose. 

After  relief  has  been  secured  by  medicine,  then  the  re- 
currence of  this  trouble  should  be  prevented  in  the  future 
by  wiser  feeding  and  abundant  exercise. 

QUINSY 

Symptoms.  —  There  is  a  marked  sore  throat.  The  neck 
is  swollen  back  of  and  beneath  the  lower  jaw.  There  is 
difficult  respiration.     Prognosis  is  usually  favorable. 

Treatment.  —  Hot  fomentations  around  the  swollen  neck, 
and  the  following  prescription  may  be  given  internally: 
Fluid  extract  belladonna  20  drops,  chlorate  of  potash  10 
grains,  3  times  a  day  in  2  oz.  water. 

SUGGESTIONS 

Drenching  swine.  —  Put  a  piece  of  rubber  hose  on  the 
neck  of  bottle,  give  medicine  slowly  and  cautiously,  and  if 
possible  when  the  animal  is  not  squealing.  The  animal  may 
either  be  thrown  down  and  held,  or  tied,  or  a  loop  may  be 
passed  around  the  upper  jaw  back  of  the  front  teeth  and 
held  by  a  turn  around  a  post;  but  in  this  case,  medicines 
must  be  given  with  great  care. 

Black  teeth.  —  Black  teeth  in  young  pigs  are  not  ol 
serious  importance,  so  far  as  the  teeth  are  concerned. 


LECTURE  LII 
OBSTETRICS 

Obstetrics  is  the  science  which  deals  with  the  birth  of 
young  animals. 

The  female  organs  studied  in  obstetrics  are:  ovaries, 
Fallopian  tubes,  vagina,  and  uterus. 

Ovaries.  —  These  are  two  small,  more  or  less  flattened, 
spherical  organs,  suspended  in  the  front  part  of  the  broad 
ligament  (see  uterus)  in  the  sublumbar  region.  In  the  cow 
and  mare  they  are  about  the  size  of  hulled  walnuts.  Their 
function  is  to  develop,  mature,  and  discharge  the  ovules  or 
eggs. 

Fallopian  tubes.  —  Two  slender  tubes  connect  the  ovaries, 
one  on  each  side,  with  the  horns  of  the  uterus.  Ovules  or 
eggs  pass  through  these  tubes  on  their  way  to  the  uterus. 

Uterus  (ivomb).  —  The  uterus  is  a  muscular  and  mem- 
branous sack,  very  large  in  pregnant  animals,  located 
partly  in  the  pelvic  cavity  and  partly  in  the  abdominal 
cavity. 

Structure.  —  The  womb  consists  of  three  layers  or  coats : 
(a)  outer  or  peritoneal;  (6)  middle,  muscular;  (c)  inner, 
mucous. 

The  outer  coat  (a)  is  the  thin,  delicate,  glistening  mem- 
brane, peritoneum,  which  lines  the  entire  abdominal  cavity 
and  covers  with  another  layer  every  organ  within  that 
cavity. 

The  middle  coat  (h)  is  composed  of  two  distinct  sets  of 
muscle  fibers.  The  outer  fibers  extend  lengthwise,  and  the 
inner  ones  around  the  uterus.  The  muscular  coat  gives 
strength  and  support  to  the  womb  and  aids  in  expelling 
the  fetus  at  birth. 

253 


254 


VETERINARY   STUDIES 


The  inner  coat  (c)  is  a  mucous  membrane  and  very  similai* 
to  that  which  hues  the  mouth  and  whole  aUmentary  canal. 
This  coat  has  especial  physiological  importance,  since  it 
provides  for  early  nourishment  of  the  ovum  and  later 
develops  the  maternal  placenta.  It  is  the  placenta  which 
gives  the  bond  of  union  between  the  mother  and  fetus 
during  pregnancy. 

Shape.  —  The  body  of  the  uterus  is  cylindrical  and 
divides  in  front  into  two  branches.  Each  branch  connects 
with  a  Fallopian  tube  and  through  that  with  the  ovary. 
The  body  of  the  uterus  narrows  behind  to  a  neck  which 
projects  into  the  vagina.  The  rectum  is  above  the  uterus, 
and  the  bladder  below  it. 

S^ipports.  —  The  uterus  is  held  in  place  by  four  ligaments 
which  are  mainly  folds  of  the  peritoneum.  The  most  im- 
portant of  these  are 
the  broad  ligaments. 
These  are  two  wide 
folds  of  the  peritoneum 
which  extend  the 
whole  length  of  the 
body  of  the  uterus 
and  its  horns,  one  on 
each  side.  They  at- 
tach in  the  sublum- 
bar  region  above,  and 
to    the    sides    of    the 

Fig.  81.  —  Generative  Organs  of  the   Mare,  ni  +  pr-iig  below        4.  third 

1,  ovaries ;  2,  F'allopian  tubes ;  6,  horn  of  uterus  -i  •  +         j.  x         r^ 

intact;    7,  horn  of  uterus  laid  open;    8,   body  of  ligament     attacneS 

uterus ;    9,   broad  hgament ;     10,   cervix  or  neck  above    to    the    TCCtum 
of  the  uterus  ;  13,  outlet  of  the  urethra.  ' 

and  a  fourth  below  to 
the  floor  of  the  pelvis.  These  four  ligaments  all  give  sup- 
port to  the  uterus  and  hold  it  in  position. 

Openings.  —  There  are  three  openings  into  the  uterus : 
one  behind  into  the  vagina;  two  in  front  for  the  Fallopian 
tubes. 

Function.  —  The  function  of  the  uterus  is  to  receive  and 


OBSTETRICS  255 

nourish  the  ovum  and  mature  it  after  it  has  been  fertihzed. 

The  ovum  attaches  to  the  uterine  wall;  a  covering  and 
.supporting  membrane  is  developed  around  it ;  and  there  the 
fetus  develops,  receiving  a  rich  supply  of  oxygen  and  food 
materials  from  the  maternal  uterine  walls,  through  the 
surrounding  membranes,  by  osmosis. 

Vagina.  —  This  is  a  memjjranous  tube  which  contains 
much  muscular  tissue  in  its  walls. 

Structure.  —  There  are  three  coats :  (a)  outer  of  loose  con- 
nective tissue;    (6)  middle,  muscular;  (c)  inner,  mucous. 

Location.  —  The  vagina  is  located  in  the  pelvis  between 
the  rectum  above  and  the  floor  of  the  pelvis  below.  It  is 
capable  of  great  dilation  to  allow  the  passage  of  the  young 
at  birth.  Between  the  uterus  and  vagina  the  connection 
or  common  opening  is  through  the  neck,  at  which  point 
the  uterus  narrows  greatly  and  is  composed  of  firmer  tissue. 
As  the  time  for  delivery  approaches,  this  narrow  canal 
dilates  until  the  opening  is  large  enough  for  the  young 
animal  to  pass  through. 

Normal  period  of  gestation.  —  This  varies  from  two  years 
in  the  elephant  to  28  days  in  the  rabbit.  The  cow  carries 
young  283  days;  mare,  345  days;  sow,  119  days;  ewe,  149 
days.  All  these  may  vary  greatly.  Old  animals  usually 
carry  longer  than  young. 

ACCIDENTS    OF    PREGNANCY 

Most  important.  —  The  most  serious  are :  (a)  abortion ; 
(6)  retention  of  the  fetus;  (r)  volvulus  (twist  in  the  neck 
of  the  uterus). 

(a)  Abortion.  —  For  the  purpose  of  this  lesson,  abortion 
may  be  defined  as  any  premature  birth. 

They  are  either  (1)  sporadic  or  (2)  infectious. 

(1)  Sporadic  abortions  may  be  due  to  a  great  variety  of 
conditions;  e.g.  sudden  change  in  the  weather  and  exposure 
to  cold;  strong  medicines,  especially  purgatives;  mechani- 
cal injuries;    sudden  and  unaccustomed  exercise;    extreme 


256 


VETERINARY   STUDIES 


nervous   excitement;     diseases   accompanied   by   coiigli   or 
severe  pain  or  high  fever;    ergot,  smut,  etc.,  on  the  food; 

water  containing 
sewage;  disease  of 
the  uterus;  lack  of 
constitutional  vigor 
in  either  sire  or  dam. 
(2)  Infe  ct  10  us 
abortion  is  probably 
due  to  a  distinct 
contagium;  i.e.  to 
the  action  of  living 
germs  upon  the 
uterus  and  placental 
membranes.  Cer- 
tain conditions  of 
the  atmosphere, 
diet,  and  vitality 
may  favor  the  out- 
break. 

Infectious  abortion  does  not  spread  rapidly  through  a 
herd,  but  the  cases  come  at  intervals  throughout  the  season 
of  pregnancy  until  a  large  percentage  of  the  herd  may  have 
aborted. 

Preventive  treatment.  —  In  case  of  sporadic  abortion,  the 
uterus  can  sometimes  be  quieted  and  a  threatened  abortion 
prevented  by  the  earl}^  administration  of  tincture  of  opium 
and  f .  e.  viburnum  given  as  follows :  — 


Fig.  82. — Fetus  and  Fetal  Membranes  of  the 
Cow  AT  Mid-pregnancy. 

Uterus  opened  on  the  right  side,  exposing  fetus 
and  membranes.  Note  the  small,  light-colored  bodies 
(cotyledons)  which  connect  uterus  and  membranes. 
See  also  Fig.  83.  A,  uterus ;  B,  cervix  (neck  of 
uterus). 


Cow  OB  Mare 

Sheep 

Tine,  opium 

F.  E.  viburnum  prunifolium  .     . 
Sirup 

2oz. 

3  oz. 

10  oz. 

2  drams 

3  drams 
2oz. 

Repeat  every  two  hours  until  the  patient  is  quiet  or  the 
abortion  occurs,  and  keep  the  cow  under  the  influence  of 
these  medicines  for  several  days,  greatly  reducing  the  opium 


OBSTETRICS  257 

as  soon  as  the  urgent  symptoms  have  passed.  Small  and 
frequently  repeated  doses  of  oil  may  be  needed  to  prevent 
and  overcome  the  constipating  effect  of  opium. 

General  prevention.  —  When  a  case  of  abortion  occurs  in 
any  herd  or  flock,  begin  a  search  for  the  cause.  If  this 
cause  continues  in  operation,  a  large  number  of  animals 
may  become  affected.  The  animal  that  has  already  aborted 
should  be  removed  at  once  from  the  shed  or  stable  where 
others  are  confined.  All  fetal  membranes  and  discharges 
from  the  vagina  must  be  burned  or  buried,  and  the  stall 
where  the  abortion  occurred  should  be  disinfected  with 
5  per  cent  crude  carbolic  acid.  A  special  attendant  should 
take  care  of  animals  that  have  aborted,  if  there  is  any  possi- 
bility that  they  have  had  the  infectious  t3'pe  of  this  disease. 

Symptoms.  —  S3'mptoms  of  approaching  abortion  are 
frequently  obscure.  Sometimes  there  is  a  discharge  from 
the  vagina.  This  organ  is  swollen  and  the  mucous  mem- 
brane may  be  deeply  congested.  Slight  labor  pains  some- 
times appear  several  hours  before  the  fetus  is  expelled  and 
before  the  sac  is  ruptured.  Occasionally  the  animal  may  be 
noticed  moving  around  uneasily.  Ligaments  at  the  tail 
head  on  each  side  relax  and  drop.  The  udder  develops 
prematurely,  especialh'  noticed  in  heifers. 

General  results  of  abortion.  —  The  afterbirth  is  frequently 
retained  and  slow  blood  poisoning  may  ensue  in  the  ab- 
sence of  skillful  treatment.  Garget  may  appear,  which 
seems  to  be  associated  with  the  condition  of  the  uterus, 
probably  by  transfer  of  infection  from  the  discharge.  The 
appetite  is  impaired  or  lost.  The  patient  loses  flesh  and 
gets  very  weak  and  thin  and  may  come  in  heat  frequently, 
but  does  not  become  pregnant  again  for  a  long  time,  or 
remains  barren. 


LECTURE    LIII 
INFECTIOUS   ABORTION 

Causes.  —  It  seems  very  probable  that  infectious  abor- 
tion is  due  to  living  microorganisms,  i.e.  to  bacteria.  It 
is  very  possible  that  several  different  germs  are  capable  of 
causing  this  disease.  If  this  be  true,  then  we  do  not  have 
a  specific  disease  due  to  a  specific  germ. 

Dissemination.  —  It  is  evident  that  this  disease  may  be 
spread  in  many  ways.  The  afterbirth,  discharges  from  the 
womb  and  vagina,  and  manure  of  very  young  calves  are 
probably  all  infectious.  The  disease  may  be  transmitted 
directly  at  the  time  of  service  from  male  to  female.  -It  is 
conceivable  that  a  cow  which  has  aborted  and  whose  tail 
is  contaminated  with  discharge  might  very  easily  infect 
another  cow  by  simply  switching  her  tail  so  as  to  strike 
the  hind  quarters  of  an  adjoining  cow. 

A  cow  may  abort  one  or  more  times,  then  become  im- 
mune and  carry  her  future  calves  to  full  term,  but  remain 
infectious  for  an  indefinite  period,  and  thus  prove  a  very 
serious,  because  unsuspected,  source  of  spread.  There  are 
many  cases  on  record  where  the  disease  has  been  intro- 
duced into  a  sound  herd  by  a  bull  from  a  diseased  herd  or 
by  a  home  bull  which  has  been  allowed  to  serve  infected 
cows  in  other  herds.  This  disease  is  easil}^  introduced  by 
the  purchase  of  an  infected  cow  from  a  herd  in  wdiich  the 
disease  has  prevailed.  In  this  case  the  disease  would  ordi- 
narily spread  from  the  infected  cow  to  the  herd  bull  and 
from  the  herd  bull  to  the  previously  healthy  cows  of  the 
home  herd. 

258 


INFECTIOUS  ABORTION  259 

Method  of  infection.  —  There  are  probabh"  various 
methods  of  infection.  Infecting  material  may  reach  the 
genital  organs  of  tlie  healthy  female.  There  is  some  evi- 
dence that  the  disease  may  be  contracted  through  food 
and  by  inoculation,  i.e.  in  cuts  or  abrasions  of  the  skin. 
The  disease  appears  to  have  been  transmitted  experimentally 
by  artificial  inoculation  into  veins. 

Effect.  —  A  serious  percentage  of  cows  which  abort 
subsequently  become  sterile.  Most  cows  do  not  abort  more 
than  twice  and  thereafter  become  immune,  producing 
healthy  calves  at  full  term,  but  remaining  infectious.  Con- 
tamination with  the  virus  of  abortion  may  result  in  direct 
abortion,  or  the  calf  may  die  and  become  mummified,  or  be 
born  at  or  near  full  term  weak  and  predisposed  to  diarrhea. 
Cows  which  abort  are  very  apt  to  be  unthrifty  for  a  very 
long  time.  Many  of  them  contract  infection  of  the  udder, 
probably  from  vaginal  discharge,  leading  to  a  serious  gar- 
get, and  there  may  be  a  condition  of  general  septicaemia  or 
blood  poisoning. 

Diagnosis.  —  We  have  first  the  history  of  an  unusual 
number  of  cows  in  a  herd  dropping  their  calves  prematurely. 
Frequently  the  vaginal  discharge  wiiich  accompanies  abor- 
tion is  dirty  in  appearance  and  of  a  foul  odor.  The  mucous 
membrane  of  the  vagina  frequently  becomes  congested  and 
the  lips  of  the  vulva  swollen  several  da\'s  before  abortion 
occurs.  A  tendency  to  abortion,  especially  in  heifers,  is 
usually  indicated  b}^  marked  premature  development  of  the 
udder,  and  the  ligaments  at  the  tail  head  on  each  side 
relax  and  drop. 

Prevention.  —  It  is  necessary  to  bear  in  mind  the  prob- 
able cause  of  this  disease  and  the  common  methods  of  dis- 
semination. A  farmer  owning  a  healthy  herd  should,  for 
instance,  never  purchase  cattle  of  breeding  age  from  a  herd 
in  which  this  disease  has  occurred  within  three  years.  He 
should  not  do  public  service  with  a  herd  bull  where  there  is 
possibility  of  contamination,  nor  should  he  use  a  neighbor's 
bull  that  can  possibl}^  be  contaminated  with  this  infection. 


260  VETERINARY   STUDIES 

Management  of  an  aborting  herd.  —  Abortion  should  not 
be  allowed  to  occur  in  the  herd  stable  if  it  can  be  avoided. 
The  calf  and  afterbirth  should  be  buried  deeply  or,  better 
still,  be  burned.  Floors  and  partitions  and  other  con- 
taminated surfaces  should  be  carefully  disinfected.  In  case 
the  calf  is  mature  enough  to  survive,  its  manure  should  be 
treated  as  though  it  were  certainly  infectious. 

Some  outbreaks  of  what  seems  to  be  infectious  abortion 
are  apparently  gotten  rid  of  very  easily  under  treatment 
which  would  not  appeal  to  an  experienced  veterinarian  or 
bacteriologist  as  amounting  to  anything;  but  as  a  rule  very 
painstaking  work,  long  continued,  is  essential  to  any  assur- 
ance of  success.  An  owner  should  not  undertake  the  treat- 
ment of  a  considerable  number  of  animals  unless  they  are 
sufficiently  valuable  to  make  it  worth  while,  nor  \vithout 
realizing  that  he  has  a  hard  task  ahead  of  him.  The  general 
method  here  recommended  for  eradication  of  infection  is 
based  on  present  information.  It  is  quite  likely  that  we 
shall  have  much  additional  light  on  this  disease  within  a 
few  years  wdiich  will  enable  us  to  change  and  simplify  very 
much  our  methods. 

Divide  the  herd  into  two  groups;  namely,  cattle  to  keep 
in  the  herd,  and  cattle  that  should  be  sold  for  slaughter. 
Sell  all  females  that  have  ever  been  bred  and  which  are 
not  valuable  enough  to  justify  a  large  amount  of  work 
and  some  expense.  Cows  that  have  ever  aborted  and  bulls 
that  have  served  such  cows  should  be  sold  only  for  slaughter. 

Non-pregnant  females  over  one  year  of  age  which  have 
not  recently  aborted  should  have  one  internal  disinfection 
(a)  and  one  external  disinfection  (6)  daily  for  four  weeks,, 
and  thereafter  twice  a  week  for  four  wrecks  more. 

Pregnant  cows  should  be  disinfected  internally  once  a 
week  until  within  a  month  of  calving.  Disinfect  these  ex- 
ternally twice  a  week  until  they  calve,  and  give  carbolic 
acid  internally. 

Cows  that  have  recently  aborted  should  have  the  womb 
irrigated,  using  a  gallon  or  more  of  warm  solution  daily  for 


INFECTIOUS  ABORTION  261 

a  week;  thereafter  once  a  week  as  long  as  the  womb  re- 
mains sufficiently  open.  For  this  irrigation  use  internal 
disinfecting  solution  (a)  injected  directly  into  the  womb. 
This  is  for  all  cows  that  have  aborted  and  are  to  be  saved 
for  breeding.  The  afterbirth  and  all  discharge  must  be 
deeply  buried  or  burned. 

When  a  cow  has  aborted,  the  afterbirth  should  be  re- 
moved within  48  hours  if  it  will  come  away  easily.  If  it 
does  not  come  away  easily,  then  irrigate  the  uterus  freely 
with  a  warm  internal  disinfection  (a)  twice  daily  until  it 
does  come  away.  After  this,  continue  irrigation  in  retained 
afterbirth  cases  once  a  day  as  long  as  the  opening  of  the 
womb  permits.  Cows  that  have  aborted  should  not  be 
bred  in  less  than  three  months,  and  in  no  case  until  the  dis- 
charge has  ceased  for  at  least  a  month. 

Males  should  be  used  with  great  caution.  For  cows  that 
have  never  aborted  use  a  bull  that  has  had  no  chance  for 
infection,  the  bull  to  be  disinfected  internally  before  and 
after  each  service;  use  a  different  bull  for  cows  that  have 
aborted,  he  also  to  be  disinfected  internally  before  and 
after  service,  but  with  a  different  piece  of  tubing  and  nozzle. 
Bulls  known  to  be  infected  should  be  irrigated  once  daily 
for  four  weeks,  and  after  this  period  before  and  after  each 
service. 

DISINFECTION 

Internal  disinfection  (a)  as  used  here  (except  where 
reference  is  made  to  womb  of  cows  that  have  recently 
aborted)  means  injection  into  the  vagina  for  females  and 
into  the  sheath  for  males.  External  disinfection  (6)  for 
cows  means  around  and  under  the  tail  and  between  the 
thighs.  External  disinfection  for  bulls  means  the  outside 
of  the  sheath,  especially  around  the  opening. 

For  internal  disinfection  use  .75  per  cent  lysol  or  creolin, 
warm.  For  very  sensitive  cows  it  is  advisable  to  begin, 
the  internal  disinfection  at  .25  per  cent  or  even  with  plain 
water  and  increase  gradually  to  the  .75  per  cent.  A  con- 
tainer and  a  few  feet  of  ^-inch  rubber  tubing  with  a  funnel 


262  VETERINARY   STUDIES 

and  a  short  smooth  nozzle  of  some  kind  is  all  that  is  neces- 
sary for  apparatus.  A  nozzle  is  not  necessary  if  the  tub- 
ing is  fairly  rigid.  An  ordinary  horse  stomach  tube  is  a 
very  satisfactory  tul^ing  for  cows,  and  a  horse  catheter  may 
be  used  with  the  best  satisfaction  for  bulls  in  place  of 
rubber  tubing  and  nozzle.  A  simple  container  for  gravity 
apparatus,  very  convenient  and  cheap,  may  be  made  from 
a  large  galvanized  iron  pail  with  a  stopcock  at  the  bottom. 
An  old-fashioned  "  shotgun  "  milk  can  is  an  ideal  container, 
since  it  is  already  fitted  with  stopcock  at  the  bottom  and 
has  a  glass  gauge  at  the  side  where  the  amount  given  each 
animal  may  be  easily  read  off  as  the  fluid  lowers  in  the  can. 
The  container  may  be  very  conveniently  held  by  an  ordi- 
nary snap  sliding  on  an  overhead  wire  extending  across 
the  stable  back  of  the  cows. 

For  external  disinfection  use  lysol  or  creolin  3  per  cent,  or 
corrosive  sublimate  1  to  1000,  or  carbolic  acid  5  per  cent,  in 
water. 

Stables.  —  Manure  should  be  removed  and  used  so  that 
it  cannot  carry  infection  to  pregnant  cows.  Feed  for  cows 
that  are  pregnant  or  about  to  become  pregnant  must  not 
be  contaminated  by  discharges  from  aborting  cows,  or  by 
manure  from  calves  born  of  aborting  cows  when  the  calves 
may  be  mature  enough  to  live. 

For  disinfection,  the  cow  stable  should  have  litter  cleaned 
out  of  the  mangers  and  stalls;  walls,  partition,  floors,  etc., 
should  be  scrubbed  by  means  of  a  broom  and  plenty  of 
water  and  be  then  disinfected  by  means  of  corrosive  sub- 
limate, 1  to  1000  in  water,  or  copper  sulphate,  5  oz.  to 
a  gallon  of  water,  or,  better  still,  by  corrosive  sublimate  in 
fresh  whitewash  in  the  proportion  of  1  lb.  corrosive  sub- 
Hmate  to  1000  lbs.  of  water  (125  gallons). 

MEDICAL    TREATMENT 

All  pregnant  cows  in  an  aborting  herd  should  have  car- 
bolic acid  mixed  with  ground  feed.  Large  doses  of  carbolic 
acid  continued  for  a  long  time  have  seemed  to  give  the 
writer  good   results   in   aborting  herds  and  in  some  cases 


INFECTIOUS  ABORTION  263 

where  abortion  seemed  actuall}^  threatened.  Begin  with 
one  dram  of  carboHc  acid  per  day  per  1000  lbs.  weight. 
Dissolve  the  acid  in  4  oz.  of  water  and  thoroughly  mix  it 
with  feed  to  avoid  burning  the  mouth.  Increase  this  dose 
in  about  10  days  gradually  to  4  or  even  6  drams  a  day  in 
a  pint  or  pint  and  a  half  of  water,  giving  the  larger  dose  in 
2  or  3  feeds.  Continue  this  for  a  month.  Thereafter  give 
this  dose  (4  to  6  drams)  daily  for  10  consecutive  days  each 
month  until  the  cow  calves,  and  make  the  treatment  periods 
regular.  There  should  be  not  less  than  one  pound  feed  (dr}^) 
to  each  dram  carbolic  acid. 

In  order  to  avoid  having  cows  in  full  flow  of  milk  refuse 
a  feed  or  two  while  they  are  getting  accustomed  to  the 
acid,  it  is  worth  while  to  begin  with  a  much  smaller  dose 
than  indicated.  After  cattle  become  accustomed  to  carbolic 
acid,  they  apparently  do  not  dislike  it,  but  rather  like  the 
flavor. 

In  our  experimental  work  we  have  given  ver}'  large 
quantities  of  carbolic  acid  without  apparent  harm,  much 
larger  quantities  than  the  doses  here  I'ecommended. 

It  is  ver}'  convenient  for  this  treatment  to  make  up  3 
per  cent  solution  carbolic  acid  in  water;  4  oz.  of 
solution  contains  one  dram  carbolic  acid.  In  the  summer 
time  when  cattle  are  on  pasture,  or  at  any  time  when  it  is 
advisable  to  cut  down  the  grain  ration  to  a  point  where 
the  bulk  would  not  be  sufficient  to  properly  dilute  the  acid, 
then  this  medicine  may  be  easily  given  by  drench. 

It  frequently  occurs  that  in  aborting  herds  there  are  a 
number  of  barren  cows;  some  have  aborted  and  thereafter 
remain  sverile;  others  have  been  infected  without  abortion 
and  subsequently  remain  sterile.  Many  of  these  cases  can 
be  induced  to  breed  b}^  suitable  internal  disinfection.  Cows 
in  an  aborting  hf^rd  that  fail  to  breed  should  be  disinfected 
internally  (a)  once  daily  for  a  month  and  thereafter  twice 
a  week  until  they  are  safely  in  calf.  In  case  a  cow  is  to 
be  served  within  10  cr  12  hours  after  receiving  internal 
disinfection,  the  vagina  should  first  be  flushed  out  freely 
with  w^arm  water  or  warm  wnter  with  a  little  soda. 


LECTURE   LIV 
OBSTETRICS 

ACCIDENTS    OF    PREGNANCY 

(h)  Retention  of  the  fetus.  —  This  trouble  is  most  com- 
mon in  cows.  The  period  of  retention  may  vary  from 
normal  up  to  five  years.  A  fetus  may  be  alive  in  the  cow 
for  at  least  a  year,  from  pregnancy,  it  may  be  dead  and 
mummified,  or  it  may  decompose.  Aged  mares  sometimes 
carry  far  beyond  the  normal  period  for  delivery  and  then 
give  normal  birth. 

Sjimptoms.  —  The  mother  may  show  labor  pains  at 
normal  time  and  all  other  symptoms  of  parturition  may 
be  present.  The  symptoms  disappear  and  the  cow  goes  on 
as  if  non-pregnant,  but  does  not  usually  come  in  heat. 

Causes.  —  Partial  paralysis  of  the  uterus ;  excessive  ad- 
hesions between  fetus  and  uterus;  deformed  pelvis;  tor- 
sion of  uterus,  etc. 

Treatment.  —  At  normal  period  of  delivery  dilate  the 
neck  of  the  uterus  with  the  aid  of  belladonna  ointment  and 
gentle  mechanical  force,  and  deliver  the  calf.  If  the  cow 
has  gone  safely  past  this  period,  then  fatten  and  sell  her  for 
beef. 

(c)  Volvulus  {o7'  twist).  —  A  twist  sometimes  occurs  in 
the  neck  of  the  uterus  and  makes  delivery  exceedingly 
difficult. 

It  is  much  more  common  in  the  cow  than  in  the  mare, 
and  usually  occurs  near  the  termination  of  pregnancy. 

Cause.  —  It  may  be  caused  by  the  patient  slipping  or 
falling,  and  especially  if  she  rolls  over,  late  in  the  period  of 
pregnancy.     Some  authors  think  it  may  be  due  to  active 

264 


OBSTETRICS 


265 


and  unusual  movements  of  the  fetus.  It  can  only  be 
diagnosed  positively  by  examination  with  the  hand  and 
finding  a  twist  in  the  neck  of  the  uterus. 

Treatment.  —  If  the  twist  is  slight,  the  operator  may  be 
able  to  reduce  it  by  introducing  the  hand  into  the  uterus 
and  grasping  some  portion  of  the  fetus  and  causing  the 
uterus  to  unwind  by  a  strong  twisting  motion.  Sometimes 
it  is  necessary  to  throw  the  cow  or  mare,  then  introduce 
the  hand,  grasp  firmly  one  or  more  limbs  of  the  fetus,  and 
have  the  cow  rolled  in  the  opposite  direction  from  the 
twist,  holding  firmly  to  the  fetus  meanwhile.  If  the  opera- 
tor can  succeed  in  getting  his  hand  into  the  uterus,  and 
especially  if  he  can  get  one  or  more  fetal  limbs  through  the 
neck  of  the  uterus,  the  twist  may  usually  be  reduced.  Some 
of  these  cases,  however,  are  exceedingly  difficult  to  handle. 


ACCIDENTS    OF    PARTURITION 

The  most  common  are:  (a)  germ  infection;  (6)  inversion 
of  the  uterus;  (c)  tear  in  the  vagina;  {d)  retention  of  fetal 
membranes;  (e)  hemor- 
rhage ;  (/)  mammitis 
(garget). 

(a)  Germ  infection  of 
the  female  genital  or- 
gans may  cause  blood 
poisoning.  When  in- 
troducing the  hand  or 
any  other  foreign  body, 
be  sure  that  it  has  not 
recently  touched  what 
is  dead  or  putrefying 
or  otherwise  infected. 

(h)   Inversion    of   the 
uterus.  —  This  is   most 
common  in  the  cow,  and  may  be  partial  or  complete.     There 
may  also  be  partial  eversion  of  the  bladder  and  vagina. 


^^ 

^g 

m^ 

■ 

^H 

^B||| 

1 

s 

^B 

1 

^H 

^^^S 

till 

^^^ 

^^^^^^-^1 

H 

hhh^h 

i^mg^ygn 

^H 

Fig.  83.  —  Bovine  Cotyledons. 

A,  pedicle  of  uterine  cotyledon  ;  B,  B,  uterine 
cotyledon ;  D,  fetal  cotyledon ;  E,  fetal  mem- 
brane. 


266  VETERINARY   STUDIES 

Causes.  —  This  may  be  due  to  excessive  force  used  in 
aiding  delivery,  or  failure  of  the  uterus  to  contract  after 
delivery. 

Treatment.  —  Thoroughly  cleanse  the  protruding  uterus 
with  hot  water  and  invert  over  the  hand  and  arm.  Be 
careful  to  smooth  out  each  fold  and  leave  the  uterus  in  a 
natural  position.  If  the  uterus  is  greatly  swollen  and 
heavy,  bathe  in  cold  astringent  solutions,  like  strong  alum 
water,  until  the  size  is  sufficiently  reduced  to  permit  re- 
placement. A  common  washtub  is  very  convenient  for 
bathing  the  soiled  and  swollen  uterus. 

Bandaging  very  firmly  with  a  wide  roller  of  muslin  forces 
out  much  of  the  blood,  reduces  the  bulk,  and  allows  han- 
dling of  the  uterus  without  injury.  The  bandage  should  be 
wide,  and  rolled  from  both  ends. 

To  put  on  the  bandage,  begin  with  the  middle  of  the 
bandage  at  the  end  of  the  uterus  and  carry  the  ends  around 
in  opposite  directions,  pulling  firmly  all  the  time  so  as  to 
force  the  blood  back  into  the  general  circulation.  In  very 
troublesome  cases  it  may  be  advisable  to  first  throw  a  cow 
carefully,  then  hoist  her  hind  parts  by  pulleys  and  ropes 
until  only  the  shoulders  and  neck  rest  upon  the  floor.  The 
rope  should  be  attached  by  hopples  or  otherwise  just  above 
the  ankles,  and  suitable  provision  made  so  as  to  avoid  injury 
to  the  skin  and  underlying  parts.  A  good  hopple  strap 
will  usually  do  very  well.  Ordinary  rope  could  be  used 
with  several  thicknesses  of  heavy  cloth  or  a  flat  pad  of 
oakum  inside  of  the  rope  to  protect  the  skin.  In  this 
position  the  uterus  of  a  very  troublesome  case  may  usually 
be  replaced  easily,  and  no  harm  is  done  to  the  cow  if  she  is 
carefully  handled.  After  replacing,  it  is  sometimes  advis- 
able to  pack  the  uterus  with  cotton  and  close  the  outlet  by 
means  of  sutures  through  the  vulva,  or  to  put  on  a  rope 
truss. 

Finally  give  the  cow  3  oz.  tincture  of  opium  and  2  oz. 
bromide  of  potassium  in  ^  pint  of  sirup.  Give  a  mare 
two  thirds  of  this  dose  and  the  ewe  one  eighth.     Repeat 


OBSTETRICS  267 

the  dose  in  three  hours  if  the  animal  is  still  straining.     If 
necessary,  apply  rope  truss  as  shown  in  classroom. 

(c)  Tear  in  vagina.  —  A  vagina  may  be  torn  above  or 
below  by  excessive  size  of  the  fetus,  by  faulty  position  of 
the  fetus,  or  by  excessive  force  used  in  delivery.  This 
calls  for  immediate  operation  by  a  veterinarian,  and  the 
injury  is  much  more  dangerous  for  the  mare  than  for  the 
cow. 

(f/)  Retention  of  the  afterbirth.  —  This  trouble  is  most 
common  in  cows,  but  is  less  serious  for  cows  than  for  mares. 

Cause.  —  Retention  is  much  more  common  in  cows  than 
mares  or  other  classes  of  stock.  This  trouble  is  caused  by 
unusual  adhesions  between  the  placenta  and  the  womb,  and 
is  probably  due  in  most  cases  to  mechanical  imprisonment 
of  the  placental  tufts  in  the  corresponding  cavities  of 
maternal  cotyledons. 

There  is  normally  a  short  period  of  exhaustion  following 
delivery.  After  this  period  the  uterus  should  soon  recover 
its  normal  tone  and  expel  the  afterbirth  and  accompanying 
fluids.  If  the  exhaustion  period  of  the  uterus  and  a  con- 
dition of  general  debilit}^  be  abnormal  and  therefore  expul- 
sion of  the  placenta  (afterbirth)  does  not  occur  promptly, 
then  infection  followed  by  inflammation  develops,  and  the 
incarceration  and  retention  follow.  Note  the  probable  order 
of  development:  infection,  inflammation  with  the  accom- 
panying swelling,  and  then  adhesion. 

Treatment.  —  For  the  mare  the  placenta  should  be  re- 
moved within  twelve  hours  if  it  fails  to  come  awa}^  naturally. 

For  the  cow  it  is  better  to  examine  soon  after  delivery. 
If  the  afterbirth  can  be  removed  easily  and  without  hemor- 
rhage, then  the  sooner  it  is  removed,  the  better.  If  there  is 
any  reason  to  think  infection  is  especially  liable  to  occur, 
e.g.,  from  a  dead  fetus,  or  from  injury  in  deliver}^,  then  it 
is  usually  wise  to  remove  the  afterbirth  immediately. 

Everything  in  this  work  must  be  done  with  a  view  to 
surgical  cleanliness.  First,  irrigate  the  vagina  with  an 
antiseptic    and    disinfect    the   surrounding   external    parts. 


268  VETERINARY   STUDIES 

Try  to  remove  all  placenta.  As  a  rule  it  is  wiser  to  not 
remove  any  placenta  than  to  merely  tear  off  the  free  por- 
tion of  it. 

Twist  the  membranes  that  appear  outside;  then  intro- 
duce an  oiled  hand  into  the  uterus  and  gently  separate  the 
placenta  from  its  uterine  adhesions,  pulling  with  the  other 
hand  outside. 

If  a  cow's  afterbirth  does  not  come  away  easily  and  com- 
pletely and  there  be  no  urgent  reason  for  removal,  then  the 
treatment  should  be  directed  against  extension  of  infection. 
Free  uterine  and  vaginal  irrigations  once  a  day  are  indi- 
cated. For  this  purpose,  we  may  use  .5  per  cent  creolin 
or  .5  per  cent  warm  lysol  injected  freely  by  means  of  a 
funnel  and  rubber  tubing  or  otherwise.  If  the  uterus  does 
not  expel  the  fluid,  then  it  should  be  siphoned  out. 

A  good  authority  (Williams)  recommends  iodoform  after 
the  irrrigation  and  expulsion  of  the  fluid,  and  suggests  that 
the  iodoform  may  be  inserted  in  a  capsule  and  the  capsule 
either  left  to  dissolve  or  the  capsule  may  be  opened  and  the 
powder  scattered  by  the  hand.  It  would  seem  that  this 
might  be  accomplished  by  a  long  nozzle  powder  blower. 
The  purpose  of  this  is,  of  course,  to  check  the  development 
of  infective  organisms  during  the  periods  between  irrigation. 

The  patient  should  be  examined  from  time  to  time,  and 
it  will  usually  be  found  after  a  number  of  irrigations 
with  warm  antiseptic  that  the  inflammation  has  subsided 
and  the  afterbirth  has  been  released  and  will  come  away 
easily.  In  some  cases  of  retained  afterbirth  there  develops 
a  rapid  necrosis  (tissue  death)  of  the  maternal  cotyledons, 
in  which  case  the  cotyledons  themselves  may  come  away 
quite  easily  with  the  afterbirth  and  their  removal  cause  no 
additional  harm  and  even  be  of  benefit  in  such  a  case. 
This  condition  should  also  be  followed  by  free  antiseptic 
irrigation,  as  alread}^  suggested. 

(e)  Hemorrhage.  —  This  is  rare  in  the  lower  animals.  It 
is  denoted  b}'  rapidly  increasing  paleness  around  the  eyes 
and  in  the  mouth  and  by  quick,  feeble  i3ulse.     Blood  may 


OBSTETRICS  269 

not  appear  on  the  outside,  and  yet  the  bleeding  be  extensive. 
Give  3  oz.  F.  E.  ergot  at  once,  in  4  oz.  sirup,  and  then 
give  1  oz,  ergot  in  2  oz.  sirup  every  hour  if  necessary,  up 
to  a  Hmit  of  six  doses;  meantime  pour  ice  water  over  the 
back  and  loins. 

GARGET 

Garget  is  an  inflammation  of  the  gland  tissue  and  other 
structures  composing  the  udder.  Some  congestion  and 
hardening  of  the  udder  is  probably  to  be  considered  normal 
when  it  occurs  at  about  the  time  of  parturition. 

Caues.  —  Garget  proper  (mammitis  or  mastitis),  usually, 
and  possibly  always,  is  caused  directly  by  germ  infection. 
Germs  probably  gain  entrance  in  most  cases  through  the 
milk  ducts  of  the  teats.  There  is  great  variation  in  the 
severity  of  these  cases.  Some  cases  of  garget  are  very  mild, 
and  some  lead  to  rapid  loss  of  the  udder. 

We  believe  that  many  cases  of  garget  come  as  a  result  of 
infection  from  retained  afterbirth,  or  from  some  purulent 
discharge  from  the  vagina.  The  infection  from  a  retained 
afterbirth  or  from  the  vaginal  discharge  becomes  smeared 
•upon  the  teat;  some  germs  gain  entrance  into  the  milk 
canal,  where  they  find  favorable  conditions  for  multiplica- 
tion and  rapid  extension  up  the  milk  canal  into  the  udder. 
Some  cases  receive  their  infection  from  the  hands  of  milkers 
coming  from  other  cows  which  have  such  infectious  ma- 
terial upon  the  teats  or  the  udder.  Many  cases  of  garget 
have  their  infection  carried  into  the  milk  duct  by  milk 
tubes. 

Symptoms.  —  The  symptoms  of  garget  are  the  usual 
symptoms  of  inflammation  in  any  organs :  i.e.  pain,  heat, 
redness,  and  swelling.  This  is  one  of  the  easiest  of  ail  dis- 
eases of  live  stock  to  recognize. 

Results.  —  Garget  usually  leaves  a  damaged  udder.  In 
some  cases  the  damage  may  be  extreme  and  in  other  cases 
shght,  but  it  is  probable  that  few  cases  are  ever  restored 
completely    to    normal.      The    injury    to    the    milk-gland 


270  VETERINARY   STUDIES 

structure  includes  various  tissue  degenerations,  hardening 
and  permanent  enlargement,  abscess,  or  gangrene.  De- 
velopment of  gangrene  may  be  detected  by  noting  that 
the  part  which  has  previously  been  hot  and  tender  becomes 
cold,  dark  in  color,  and  insensitive. 

Prevention.  —  Cows  that  are  wisely  fed  seem  much  less 
liable  to  udder  troubles  at  the  time  of  calving.  Heavy 
milkers  especially  should  not  be  heavily  fed  during  the  last 
period  of  pregnancy.  The  food  should  be  laxative  in  char- 
acter, and  this  same  method  of  feeding,  should  be  continued 
until  about  the  fourth  day  after  calving,  when  the  grain 
ration  may  be  gradually  increased,  the  cow  being  put  on 
feed  very  gradually  for  several  days  more. 

In  case  of  a  valuable  cow  that  has  just  calved  it  is  wise 
to  disinfect  the  udder  and  teat  with  1  to  1000  bichloride  in 
water,  which  may  be  washed  off  with  plain  water  if  the 
calf  is  allowed  to  suck.  If  possible,  this  disinfection  should 
be  given  before  any  milk  is  drawn  after  calving,  and  should 
be  kept  up  for  a  w^eek  in  case  of  a  valuable  cow.  It  seems 
that  the  cow's  udder  is  most  liable  to  this  trouble  during 
the  first  week  or  so  after  calving.  After  the  milk  flow  is 
fully  established  and  regular  milking  is  done,  there  does 
not  seem  to  be  so  much  danger  of  garget. 

Milk  tubes  do  very  much  more  harm  than  good  as  a  rule, 
and  should  never  be  used  except  when  absolutely  neces- 
sary. Tubes  should  be  used  only  after  thorough  disinfection 
of  the  teat  and  boiling  of  the  tube.  The  latter  must  not 
be  handled  in  any  way  so  as  to  infect  the  portion  which  is 
to  enter  the  teat.  Care  should  be  exercised  about  milking 
a  cow  with  hands  that  have  been  contaminated  from  puru- 
lent discharges  of  any  kind  or  with  any  kind  of  infectious 
material. 

Milkers  should  clean  their  hands  thoroughly  for  the  sake 
of  simple  cleanliness  and  pure  milk,  if  for  no  other  reason, 
and  in  addition  for  the  very  good  reason  that  they  are 
liable  to  carry  on  their  hands  infection  which  may  cause 
garget  in  the  udder  of  valuable  cows. 


OBSTETRICS  271 

Treatment.  —  The  diet  throughout  a  case  of  garget 
should  be  hght  and  laxative.  Very  light  feeding  during 
the  last  few  weeks  before  calving  is  good  preventive  treat- 
ment in  an}'  case. 

If  the  case  threatens  to  be  serious,  give  internally  fluid 
extract  of  belladonna,  2  drams,  with  fluid  extract  of  Phy- 
tolacca, 1  ounce,  four  times  a  day  in  a  little  water.  This 
may  check  considerably  the  milk  flow  and  in  this  serve  a 
useful  purpose.  Give  also  nitrate  of  potash  (saltpeter), 
2  ounces  at  a  dose,  with  ^  pound  Epsom  salts,  three  times 
a  day,  each  dose  dissolved  in  a  quart  of  water. 

For  external  treatment  of  the  udder  apply  hot  water 
freely  for  long  periods  of  time;  e.g.  twice  a  day  2  or  3 
hours  at  each  treatment.  The  water  should  be  used  as 
hot  as  it  can  be  borne,  without  injury  to  the  skin,  and  should 
be  used  very  freely.  This  hot-water  treatment  may  be 
given  to  good  advantage  by  putting  a  sling  around  the 
cow's  body  under  the  udder  and  in  front  of  the  hips  to 
support  the  udder.  Four  holes  may  be  cut  for  the  teats, 
and  woollen  cloths  or  cotton  or  oakum  should  be  packed 
around  the  udder  inside  of  the  sling  to  hold  the  heat  and 
moisture.  The  hot  water  can  then  be  poured  in  from 
above  or  be  thrown  against  the  packing  from  below  by 
means  of  a  small  dipper.  The  point  is  to  treat  the  udder 
with  moist  heat  for  a  long  period  of  time. 

After  each  water  treatment  rub  the  udder  dry  and  apply 
the  following  ointment:  Belladonna  extract,  2  parts;  vase- 
line, 8  parts;  melted  together.  As  the  mixture  cools,  add 
one  part  camphor.  Long-continued  moderate  rubbing  and 
handling  of  the  udder  is  beneficial.  This  is  best  accom- 
plished by  a  combined  rubbing  and  gentle  kneading  action 
upon  the  udder  with  the  hands.  This  massage,  if  not  un- 
reasonably severe,  is  helpful,  and  should  be  given  freely 
several  times  a  day  and  for  5  or  10  minutes  at  each  treat- 
ment. 


/    ^      -^7 


^ 


-w 


LECTURE  LV 
OBSTETRICS  —  DIFFICULT   PARTURITION 

Nature's  plan.  —  When  the  delivery  occurs  according  to 
nature's  evident  plan,  the  ligaments  of  the  pelvis  relax;  the 
water  bag  appears  through  the  neck  of  the  uterus  and 
finally  outside  the  vagina;  the  neck  and  vagina  gradually 
dilate  to  accommodate  the  fetus,  which  presents  first  the 
apex  of  a  wedge  or  cone. 

Normal  presentations.  —  We  recognize  two  normal  presen- 
tations, viz.,  the  anterior,  in  which  the  two  front  feet  and 
the  nose  appear  with  the  fetus  resting  upon  its  sternum, 
and  the  posterior,  in  which  the  two  hind  legs  and  tail  appear 
with  the  fetus  resting  on  the  sternum. 

Variations  from  these  produce  more  or  less  difficulty  in 
delivery,  according  as  the  presentation  differs  more  or  less 
from  the  normal. 

The  cause  of  difficulty  may  lie  with  either  the  mother  or 
fetus,  more  commonly  with  the  latter. 

If  the  fault  lies  with  the  mother,  it  is  usually  because  of 
premature  delivery;  extreme  narrowness  and  closeness  of 
the  pelvic  outlet;  volvulus;  deformities  of  the  pelvis 
(sometimes  fracture) ;  tumors  within  the  pelvis ;  induration 
or  hardening  of  the  uterine  neck.  Sometimes  there  is  com- 
plete closure,  and  sometimes  the  trouble  is  due  to  excessive 
accumulations  of  fat  within  the  pelvis. 

If  the  fault  lies  with  the  fetus,  it  is  because  of  faulty 
presentations,  excessive  size,  monstrosities,  or  deformities  of 
the  fetus. 

Common  faulty  presentations.  —  Faulty  anterior  presen- 
tations may  be:  head,  or  head  and  neck  doubled  back;  two 

272 


OBSTETRICS  — DIFFICULT   PARTURITION  273 

feet,  or  feet  and  legs  back;    the  neck  and  one  front  limb; 
or  the  neck  and  both  front  limbs  back. 

Faulty  posterior  presentation  may  be :  one  limb  back  and 
doubled  at  the  hock  or  stifle;  both  limbs  back  with  one 
flexed  at  each  of  these  points,  or  both  flexed  at  the  same 
joint,  which  may  be  either  hock  or  stifle. 

ASSISTANCE 

What  may  be  needed.  —  There  is  probably  no  trouble 
with  farm  stock  where  trained  and  experienced  veterinary 
assistance  is  more  urgently  needed. 

Call  your  veterinarian  prompth^,  if  one  is  available. 

If  no  competent  veterinarian  is  available,  then  the 
owner  must  do  the  best  he  can  for  himself.  He  may  need: 
plenty  of  bland  oil,  e.g.  linseed;  two  small  window  cords 
with  smooth  loops  in  one  end  of  each  to  loop  around  limbs; 
one  similar  rope  with  short  sharp  hook  in  end  to  hook  in 
underjaw  or  eye  socket;  a  pair  of  small  combination 
pulleys,  an  embryotomy  knife,  large  trocar  and  canula, 
some  antiseptic,  e.g.  creolin  to  be  used  in  4  per  cent  solu- 
tion for  hands,  instruments,  and  ropes.  These  should  be 
kept  on  hand  and  ready. 

Suggestions.  —  Do  not  interfere  until  the  water  bag  has 
ruptured  spontaneously,  unless  labor  pains  have  continued 
for  several  hours  and  the  water  bag  does  not  appear.  If 
the  water  bag  ruptures,  in  a  natural  way,  and  the  head,  for 
example,  should  present  without  the  feet,  or  the  head  and 
one  foot,  or  if  one  hind  foot  presents  and  not  the  other, 
or  any  evidently  faulty  presentation  occurs,  then  it  is  time 
to  examine  and  plan  for  assistance. 

The  first  thing  is  to  clean  and  oil  the  arm  and  examine 
carefully  to  learn  the  cause  of  trouble  and  position  of  fetus. 
Then  decide  what  you  will  do  and  how.  If  the  condition  is 
such  that  the  delivery  will  probably  be  long  and  tedious, 
with  the  patient  straining  violently,  it  may  rarely  be  desir- 
able to  abate  the  labor  pains  with  tincture  of  opium.     Other- 


274  VETERINARY  STUDIES 

wise  it  will  be  much  better  and  labor  over  sooner  if  the 
opium  be  not  given.  The  rectum  should  also  be  examined 
as  the  hand  goes  into  the  vagina,  and  if  distended  should 
also  be  emptied. 

The  patient  should  stand  or  lie  with  head  downhill.  It 
is  usually  much  easier  to  operate  with  the  patient  standing. 
Occasionally  it  is  of  great  advantage  to  have  the  patient 
on  one  side  or  the  other  or  on  her  back  for  a  time.  Be 
patient  and  not  in  too  great  a  hurry,  and  make  up  your 
mind  that  you  will  succeed,  be  it  ever  so  difficult.  When 
missing  members  are  secured  and  ready  to  pull,  pour  plenty 
of  oil,  or,  in  the  absence  of  oil,  warm  water,  into  the  uterus, 
by  means  of  a  funnel  and  rubber  tubing.  The  parts  that 
will  offer  friction  are  probably  dry  by  this  time,  and  should 
be  freely  oiled  or  moistened. 

It  is  frequently  necessary  to  shove  the  fetus  forward  into 
the  uterus  in  order  to  secure  and  straighten  "some  missing 
parts,  and  for  this  purpose  a  smooth  broom  handle  with  a 
short  brad  in  one  end  will  do  fairly  well;  but  the  hand  of 
the  operator  must  be  guarding  it,  for  fear  it  will  slip  and 
tear  the  mother.  This  is  an  accident  that  must  be  carefully 
guarded  against  on  account  of  probable  blood  poisoning. 

When  one  part  presents,  and  others  are  to  be  secured,  or 
when  one  has  been  secured  and  it  is  desirable  to  return  it 
into  the  uterus  to  secure  another  part,  always  make  sure 
of  the  progress  gained  by  attaching  one  of  the  ropes  to  the 
part  secured.  If  the  patient  cannot  be  made  to  stand, 
always  have  her  on  the  side  opposite  the  missing  part,  which 
thus  comes  on  top.  Work  between  labor  pains,  and,  when 
all  is  clear  and  ready  to  pull,  the  assistance  should  be  given 
moderately  and  while  the  mother  is  straining. 

Dropsies.  —  Sometimes  the  retarded  delivery  is  due  to 
large  accumulations  of  fluid  in  the  brain  cavity  (hydro- 
cephalus) of  the  fetus  or  within  the  abdominal  cavity 
(ascites),  or  to  a  general  accumulation  of  fluids  beneath  the 
skin  in  the  connective  tissue  and  also  in  the  abdominal 
cavity  (general  dropsy).     In  these  cases  the  difficulty  may 


OBSTETRICS  — DIFFICULT  PARTURITION  275 


Fig.  84.  —  Presentations.     (B.A.I.) 
A  and  B,  normal ;  C,  D,  E,  F,  common  abnormal  presentations. 


276  VETERINARY   STUDIES 

be  overcome  by  removing  the  fluid  by  tapping  the  brain 
and  squeezing  the  soft  bones  together,  or  tapping  the 
abdominal  cavity  and  allowing  the  fluid  to  escape.  A 
large  trocar  attached  to  rubljer  tubing  is  very  convenient 
for  this  operation. 

Gaseous  distention.  —  The  difficulty  may  be  due  to  an 
excessive  accumulation  of  gases  within  the  body  of  a  dead 
and  decaying  fetus,  and  the  obvious  treatment  is  to  tap 
with  trocar  or  knife  and  allow  gas  to  escape. 

Embryotomy.  —  If  it  becomes  necessary  to  open  the  fetal 
body  or  remove  one  or  more  of  the  fetal  limbs,  the  operator 
must  observe  certain  general  precautions. 

Beware  of  injuring  the  maternal  parts;  be  patient  and 
don't  be  in  a  hurry. 

In  case  of  twins  with  both  presenting  at  the  same  time, 
try  to  force  one  back  into  the  uterus  and  deliver  one  at  a 
time  before  attempting  dissection,  which  is  usually  very 
tedious,  and  very  exhausting  to  the  operator,  and  mother  as 
well. 

Always  save  the  skin  and  leave  plenty  to  cover  the  bones 
and  rough  parts  of  the  fetus,  and  to  pull  on. 

Removing  afore  limb.  —  Take  the  one  that  is  presenting, 
attach  cord  and  draw  out,  as  far  as  possible;  slit  the  skin 
from  as  near  the  top  of  the  scapula  as  possible  to  the  pastern 
by  means  of  an  embryotomy  knife,  and  dissect  the  skin 
loose  from  the  limb,  largely  by  fingers,  then  cut  last  the 
skin  around  the  pastern.  Then  cut  the  muscles  between 
the  limb  and  the  sternum.  By  twisting  and  pulling  at  the 
same  time  the  limb  can  then  be  removed  entire,  leaving  the 
skin  attached  to  the  shoulder.  Do  the  dissecting  with  one 
hand,  while  the  other  pulls  on  the  skin  outside.  The  reasons 
for  not  removing  the  skin  are  plain.  The  skin  gives  an 
object  to  pull  by,  and  protects  the  parts  of  the  mother  from 
bones.  It  also  keeps  the  soft  parts  of  the  fetus  from  roll- 
ing up  when  pressed  against  the  parts  of  the  mother;  and 
finally  a  dissection  is  more  easily  made  under  than  outside 
the  skin. 


OBSTETRICS  — DIFFICULT  PARTURITION  277 

Removing  tJie  head.  —  If  the  head  can  be  brought  outside 
the  vulva,  and  there  is  good  reason  for  removing  it  (which 
is  not  often),  cut  the  skin  around  the  neck,  back  of  the  ears, 
and  dissect  the  skin  loose  from  the  muscles  b}^  the  hand 
or  by  a  thin  spud,  using  the  knife  to  cut  the  connective 
tissue  bands  that  interfere,  as  far  as  the  operator  can  reach. 
Then  cut  the  cord  on  top  of  the  neck  that  supports  the 
head,  and  also  the  muscles  around  the  vertebrae.  Strong 
pulling  and  twisting  on  the  head  will  usually  bring  away 
the  head  and  neck,  leaving  a  quantity  of  skin  to  cover 
remaining  vertebrae  and  to  assist  in  pulling. 

Removal  of  the  hind  limbs.  —  This  is  done  on  the  same 
general  principle  as  for  the  fore  limb.  Cut  across  the  pelvic 
articulation  of  the  limb  on  the  inside  so  as  to  sever  the 
ligament  which  holds  the  femur  strongly  to  the  pelvis. 
Then  slit  the  skin  from  this  point  to  the  pastern.  Dissect 
the  skin  loose  from  the  limb,  as  directed  for  the  fore  limb. 
Then  by  strong  pulling  and  twisting  the  limb  can  be  torn 
loose  at  this  joint. 

It  is  rareh^  necessary  to  remove  both  hind  legs.  With 
one  out  of  the  way  the  other  can  usually  be  straightened 
or  the  body  of  the  fetus  removed  with  the  other  straightened 
forward  into  the  uterus.  The  soft  organs  may  be  removed 
from  the  body  of  the  fetus  if  necessary,  and  then  delivery 
be  accomplished. 

Caesarian  section.  —  Removal  of  the  fetus  through  the 
flank  or  median  line  of  the  belly  is  done  sometimes,  but 
only  as  a  last  resort,  more  commonly  and  successfully  done 
with  cows  and  sows  than  mares.  This  should  only  be 
attempted  by  a  medical  expert,  unless  the  plan  is  to  save 
only  the  fetus.  In  the  latter  case  the  work  must  be  done 
rapidly. 


LECTURE  LVI  ^  > 

COMMON   MEDICINES 
Common  measurements : 

/ cc  sTxy^ — 

\  Teaspoon  holds  about  1  dram  (^  oz.). 
IYii$Ji^  T    Tablespoon  holds  about  4  drams  (^  oz.). 
/     Dessert  spoon  holds  about  2  drams. 
I,    Teacup  holds  about  5  oz. 

Giving  medicines.  —  Medicines  may  be  given  to  domestic 
animals  in  the  form  of  liquid  drench,  ball,  in  dry  powder, 
or  mixed  with  hone}'"  and  molasses  and  smeared  on  the 
tongue.  In  giving  a  drench  remember  that  a  horse's  mouth 
and  throat  are  much  more  sensitive  and  more  easily  burned 
or  irritated  than  the  human.  Taste  of  the  medicine  before 
giving,  if  there  is  doubt  about  its  being  too  strong.  Powders 
should  be  finely  pulverized,  and  must  not  be  caustic  or 
irritating.  Balls  should  be  in  the  shape  of  a  cylinder  about 
2  inches  long  and  |-  to  f  of  an  inch  in  diameter.  They 
should  be  wrapped  in  thin  paper  and  oiled.  They  must  be 
reasonably  soft  and  pliable,  and  the  horse  should  be  offered 
a  swallow  of  water  immediately  after  giving. 

Drenching.  —  In  giving  a  drench  the  patient's  head  must 
not  be  held  too  high,  the  face  should  be  nearly  horizontal, 
with  the  nose  just  a  little  higher.  The  operator  must  not 
be  in  a  hurry.  The  medicine  should  be  poured  in  small 
quantities  on  top  of  the  tongue  and  as  far  back  in  the 
mouth  as  possible,  and  the  horse  should  be  given  plenty  of 
time  to  swallow.  If  the  horse  is  obstinate  about  swallow- 
ing, pour  a  tablespoonful  of  water  into  the  nose  after  each 
time  medicine  is  poured  into  the  mouth.  Medicines  should 
never  be  given  through  the  nose  because  of  danger  of  chok- 
ing.    For  supporting  the  head  to  give  a  drench,  a  rope  may 

278 


COMMON  MEDICINES 


279 


•S» 


be  tied  to  the  noseband  of  halter  and  thrown  over  the 
beam  —  never  tied,  but  held  by  an  assistant.  Better  still,  a 
cloth  loop  may  be  passed  around  the  upper  jaw  back  of  the 
front  teeth  and  through  the  noseband  of  the  halter  in  such 
way  that  it  cannot  slip  off.  This  cloth  loop  is  fastened  to 
the  overhead  rope,  which  should  be  held  —  not  tied.  Medi- 
cines may  be  given  when  the  patient  is  lying  down,  but  the 
operator  must  be  careful  not  to  pour  out  any  medicine 
when  the  patient  is  about  to  struggle  —  danger  of  choking. 
.Take  plenty  of  time. 

A  bottle  of  rubber  or  horn,  or  a  large  syringe,  is  much 
preferable  to  a  glass  bottle,  for  the  latter  will  readily  break, 
and  damage  may  be  done  in  the  mouth  by  the  sharp  pieces. 


MEDICINES 

Aloes.  —  Cathartic,  laxative,  or  bitter  tonic,  depending 
upon  the  dose  given.  It  is  very  reliable  and  satisfactory 
for  horses,  less  so  for  ruminants. 
Very  soluble  in  alcohol  and  boil- 
ing water,  imperfectly  so  in  cold 
water.  Usually  requires  15  to  20 
hours  for  operation.  It  is  often 
desirable  to  combine  it  with  one 
eighth  to  one  quarter  its  weight  of 
ginger,  and  should  be  given  in  con- 
junction with  nux  vomica  in  case 
the  bowels  are  torpid.  Large  rec- 
tal injections  of  warm  water  may 
be  given  until  the  physic  acts. 

Doses. — Cattle,  1  to  2  oz.;  horses, 
2  to  8  drams;  sheep,  1  to  2  drams; 
hogs,  1  to  2  drams. 

These    doses    may    be    adminis- 
tered  with   ginger  in  a  ball   with 
lard    or    molasses,    or    given    in    water    or    sirup    as    a 
drench. 


Fig.    85.  —  Holding    Horse's 

Head  for  Drenching. 

(M.  H.  R.) 

Note  cloth  loop  under  nose- 
band. 


280  VETERINARY  STUDIES 

Alcohol.*  —  Diffusive  stimulant,  diuretic,  reduces  fever, 
antispasmodic  and  diaphoretic.  Large  doses  are  strongly 
narcotic.  Medicinal  doses  check  spasmodic  conditions  of 
involuntary  muscle  fibers,  stimulate  the  heart  and  lungs, 
equalize  circulation,  and  overcome  extreme  depression. 
Alcohol  is  soluble  in  all  proportions  in  water,  and  should  be 
diluted  at  least  four  times  for  internal  use. 

Doses.  —  Cattle,  2  to  4  oz.;  horses,  1  to  2  oz.;  sheep,  J 
oz.;  hogs,  J  to  ^  oz.,  given  in  solution  and  diluted  as 
above. 

Boracic  acid.  —  Nonirritating,  antiseptic,  nonvolatile. 
It  is  mainly  used  externally  either  in  solution  (about  3  per 
cent)  or  in  dry  powder  as  dressing  for  wounds.  Sometimes 
it  is  used  internally  for  colts  and  calves  for  diarrhea.  Boracic 
acid  is  soluble  in  26  parts  cold  water,  in  3  parts  boihng 
water,  or  in  6  parts  alcohol. 

Doses.  —  Colts  and  calves  take  10  to  30  grains  in  sirup 
three  times  a  day. 

As  an  outward  application  for  wounds  and  sores  it  may 
be  mixed  with  half  its  bulk  of  iodoform. 

Chloroform."  —  Stimulant,  antispasmodic,  anodyne,  anaes- 
thetic. Its  stimulating  effect  resembles  that  of  alcohol,  but 
is  less  pronounced  and  more  temporary.  Applied  externally, 
it  evaporates  rapidly  and  is  cooling;  but  is  very  irritating 
when  applied  externally  and  prevented  from  evaporating. 

Chloroform  is  very  useful  in  colic  and  other  spasmodic 
conditions,  given  internally  with  6  to  S  times  its  bulk  of 
raw  linseed  oil,  and  well  shaken. 

It  is  very  slightly  soluble  in  water,  but  dissolves  freely  in 
alcohol,  ether,  or  turpentine,  and  is  useful  in  spasmodic 
colic  given  with  oil  as  above. 

Doses.  —  Horses  and  cattle  take  4  to  8  drams  repeated 
every  two  or  three  hours,  if  necessary,  till  the  patient  stag- 

*  A  diuretic  stimulates  the  kidneys  and  increases  the  flow  of  urine. 
A  diaphoretic  stimulates  perspiration. 

An  antispasmodic  relieves  crampy  conditions,  especially  of  involuntary 
muscle  fibers. 

'  An  anodyne,  relieves  pain. 

An  anaesthetic  removes  sensation. 


COMMON  MEDICINES  281 

gers.  Sheep  and  hogs  take  J-  to  1  dram  repeated  fre- 
quently as  for  horses  and  cattle. 

Carbolic  acid.  —  Deodorizes,  and  kills  germs.  In  strong 
solutions  it  is  irritant,  caustic,  and  anaesthetic.  Internally 
it  is  at  first  stimulating  and  afterwards  depressing  and 
narcotic,  and  poisonous  in  sufficient  dose  and  strength.  It 
is  used  more  commonh^  for  external  purposes,  especiall}'  as 
a  germicide,  in  2  to  5  per  cent  solutions.  Dilute  solutions 
kill  external  parasites.  It  makes  a  good  wash  for  foul  sores 
and  wounds  from  which  the  pus  does  not  drain  freely. 
Carbolic  acid  is  valuable  in  the  treatment  of  ringworms 
used  as  10  to  15  per  cent  solution  in  glycerine  or  linseed  oil. 

Carbolic  acid  is  very  commonly  used  as  an  antiseptic 
dressing  in  surgical  work  (2  to  5  per  cent  solution).  It  is 
usually  dispensed  from  the  drug  stores  as  a  95  per  cent 
solution  of  the  crystallized  drug. 

Dose.  —  Horses  and  cattle  take  internally  ^  to  2  drams; 
sheep  and  hogs  take  10  to  30  drops,  administered  per  mouth 
as  a  drench  and  greatly  diluted.  It  has  been  used  with 
apparently  good  results  for  both  after  treatment  and  pre- 
vention of  infectious  abortion  in  cattle,  given  as  a  drench. 

Iodoform.  —  This  is  used  generally  for  external  and  local 
application.  It  is  a  deodorizer;  it  prevents  infection  of 
wounds  and  acts  as  a  local  antiseptic.  Iodoform  is  very 
useful  as  a  dressing  for  wounds,  especially  after  the}'  have 
commenced  to  heal.  It  may  be  used  alone  or  mixed  with 
twice  its  bulk  of  powdered  boracic  acid  and  dusted  over  the 
wound  surface. 

Common  lime.  —  Irritant,  neutralizes  acids,  and  is  astrin- 
gent. Saturated  solution  which  is  very  dilute  is  useful  in 
diarrheas  and  indigestions  of  young  animals,  and  may  be 
given  with  milk  quite  freely.  Carron  oil  (limewater  and 
linseed  oil  in  equal  parts)  is  a  very  useful  application  for 
burns.  Whitewashing  is  a  satisfactory  method  of  disin- 
fecting and  cleaning  up  outbuildings,  including  stables. 

Doses.  —  Horses  and  cattle  take  1  to  2  drams  of  the 
quicklime;  sheep  J  to  J  drams,  very  greatly  diluted  in 
all  cases. 


LECTURE  LVII 
COMMON  MEDICINES  —  Continued 

Raw  linseed  oil.  —  Used  in  veterinary  practice  to  dilute 
stronger  medicines  in  making  liniments  and  various  appli- 
cations for  external  use,  and  internally  as  a  laxative  or 
cathartic,  depending  upon  the  dose  used.  Very  safe  and 
but  slightly  irritating.  Good  for  either  horses,  cattle,  sheep, 
or  swine. 

Doses.  —  Cattle  take  2  to  4  pints;  horses,  1  to  3  pints; 
sheep  and  hogs  take  5-  to  1  pint. 

Rectal  injections  of  warm  water  may  be  given  after  the 
oil,  and  it  is  desirable,  if  there  is  sufficient  time,  to  prepare 
horses  by  several  warm  bran  mashes  before  giving  the  oil. 

Corrosive  sublimate  (bichloride).  —  A  caustic  and  irritant 
poison.  Used,  externally  as  a  caustic  and  antiseptic. 
Stronger  solutions  and  ointments  produce  ver}''  severe 
blisters,  and  frequently  destroy  the  hair  follicles. 

Its  chief  use  is  as  a  germicide.  Cheap  and  very  satisfactory 
for  disinfecting  buildings  and  other  purposes  where  large 
quantities  must  be  used.  Dilute  solution  destro3^s  lice  and 
itch  mites  in  the  proportion  of  15  grains  to  the  pint  of 
water.  For  antiseptic  and  disinfecting  purposes  it  may  be 
used  4  to  7  grains  to  the  pint. 

Epsom  salts.  —  A  saline  cathartic,  causes  a  large  secretion 
of  fluids  from  the  intestinal  walls,  thus  rendering  the  bowel 
contents  very  fluid.  It  is  very  satisfactory  as  a  laxative 
or  cathartic  for  cattle  and  sheep,  not  so  good  for  horses. 
Epsom  salts  is  useful  in  small  doses  given  to  horses  in  fever- 
ish conditions.  It  is  very  soluble  in  water,  for  it  will  dis- 
solve in  its  own  weight  of  warm  water,  but  is  insoluble  in 
alcohol. 

282 


COMMON  MEDICINES 


283 


Doses.  —  Cattle  take  for  cathartic  1  to  3  pounds;  sheep 
and  hogs  take  ^  to  J  pound.  It  is  frequently  desirable 
to  add  ^  to  ^  these  doses  of  common  salt  and  |-  the  total 
weight  of  })owdered  ginger,  and  give  as  a  drench.  It  is 
better  to  give  quite  dilute  drenches;  e.g.  the  cow's  dose 
should  be  dissolved  in  2  to  3  pints  of  water,  and  the  others 
in  proportion. 

Sodium  chloride  (common  salt).  —  An  essential  article  of 
food,    restorative    and    antiseptic.     Very    large    doses    are 


Ik;.  s(i.  —  To  Throw  ("attle.     {M.H.R.) 
Pull  straight  back  on  the  rope. 

cathartic  and  more  or  less  irritating.  For  grown  cattle  and 
sheep  in  good  strength  salt  is  a  very  useful  cathartic.  Salt 
is  more  commonly  coml^ined  with  other  saline  cathartics. 
It  is  useful  as  a  throat  wash  in  certain  sore  throats,  diluted 
to  5  per  cent  solution  in  water. 

Sodium  hyposulphite  and  sodium  sulphite.  —  Antiseptic 
and  deodorant;  especially  valual)le  for  internal  administra- 
tion, to  check  fermentation  and  septic  processes  in  the 
stomach  and  intestines,  and  therefore  valuable  in  conditions 


284  VETERINARY  STUDIES 

of  diarrhea,  indigestions;  and  hoven  or  bloat.  It  is  also 
useful  in  small  doses  to  control  feverish  conditions.  Both 
the  sulphite  and  the  hyposulphite  are  readily  soluble  in 
water. 

Doses.  —  Horses  and  cattle  take  of  the  sulphite  8  to  10 
oz.;  sheep  and  swine  take  4  to  8  drams.  The  doses  of 
hyposulphite  are  much  smaller  —  about  ^lalf  as  large  as 
for  the  sulphite.  These  doses  are  to  be  given  as  drenches, 
well  diluted,  and  repeated  three  times  daily.  Smaller  doses 
may  l)e  given  every  half  hour  in  cases  of  bloat. 

Saltpeter  (nitrate  of  potash).  —  ]\Iildly  antiseptic,  and  has 
sHght  cathartic  effect.  It  is  diuretic;  it  increases  the 
secretion  from  skin  and  bronchial  tubes;  is  alterative  and 
febrifuge,  and  useful  in  the  treatment  of  all  classes  of  ani- 
mals. Saltpeter  is  useful  for  external  coohng  effect  when 
dissolved  in  water  with  sal  ammoniac.  For  alterative  and 
febrifuge  effect  it  is  given  in  about  half  the  doses  that  are 
given  to  stimulate  the  kidneys. 

Saltpeter  is  very  soluble  in  water,  warm  or  cold. 

Doses.  —  Cattle  and  horses  for  diuretic  effect,  J  to  2  oz.; 
sheep  and  swine,  J  to  2  drams.  These  doses  are  given  in 
the  drinking  water  or  as  a  drench.     Not  caustic. 

Sweet  spirit  of  niter.  —  Stimulant  much  like  alcohol  or 
ether;  it  is  antispasmodic  and  increases  the  excretion  from 
skin,  lungs,  and  kidneys.  .Very  large  doses  are  narcotic. 
It  is  very  useful  in  cases  of  spasmodic  colic  and  tympanites, 
and  is  a  convenient  heart  stimulant. 

Doses.  —  As  a  stimulant  and  antispasmodic,  horses  and 
cattle  take  2  to  4  oz.;  hogs  2  to  4  drams.  It  is  decom- 
posed by  water,  and  should  not  be  mixed  with  other  medi- 
cines until  just  before  giving.  It  is  given  as  a  drench  with 
water  or  in  sirup.  As  an  antispasmodic  it  may  be  given  to 
advantage  with  cither  opium  or  chloral  hydrate. 

Oil  of  turpentine  (common  turpentine).  —  Stimulant,  anti- 
septic, and  destroys  parasites,  both  external  and  internal. 
It  is  readily  absorbed  when  swallowed,  and  is  excreted  by 
the  lungs,  skin,  and  kidneys.     Overdoses  irritate  the  mucous 


COMMON  MEDICINES 


285 


membrane  of  these  organs.  For  medicinal  purposes  it  is 
used  in  indigestion,  certain  conditions  of  diarrhea  and 
tympanites  (bloating);  a  very  useful  medicine  in  these 
conditions  and  one  that  is  usually  at  hand.  It  is  slightly 
soluble  in  water,  quite  soluble  in  ether  or  alcohol  or  linseed 
oil. 

Doses.  —  Horses  and  cattle,  as  stimulant  and  antispas- 
modic, take  1  to  2  oz.  two  or  three  times  a  da}^  for  stimu- 
lating effect  upon  mucous  membranes  of  the  bronchial  tubes, 
skin,  or  kidneys.  The  dose  for  sheep  and  swine  should  be 
^bout  -g-  of  these  quantities. 

Opium.  —  Medicinal  doses  relieve  pain  and  spasmodic 
conditions,  reduce  congestion  and  inflammation;  check  in- 
testinal secretion  and  peristaltic  movements;  and  with  some 
animals  produce  sleep.  The  various  preparations  of  opium 
are  used  in  medicine  for  the  purpose  of  reUeving  pain,  per- 
haps more  than  any  other  agent.  Opium  is  a  typical 
anodyne  (pain  reliever),  but  there  are  very  many  conditions 
that  arise  in  practice  under  which  it  should  never  be  given, 
which  it  is  not  thought  practical  to  explain  in  this  short 
lecture  further  than  that  the  person  who  is  giving  opium 
to  any  domestic  animal  must  not  forget  that  it  checks  in- 
testinal secretion  and  peristaltic  movements  of  the  intestine, 
and  in  this  way  may  cause  constipation  at  just  the  time 
when  the  reverse  condition  is  .desired. 


Dose 

Horses 

Cattle 

Sheep 

Hogs 

Crude  opium      .     .     . 
Morphine  sulphate 
Tincture  opium  (Lau- 
danum)     .... 

1-2  drs. 
3-5  grs. 

1-2  ozs. 

2-4  drs. 
3-8  grs. 

1-3  ozs. 

10-40  grs. 
H-  2  grs. 

2-  6  drs. 

10-40  grs. 
3^-  2  grs. 

2-  6  drs. 

The  tincture  should  be  diluted  with  water  or  sirup  the 
same  as  for  alcohol. 

Morphine  is  an  active  principle  of  opium,  and  shows  all 
the  essential  physiological  properties  of  the  crude  drug. 
Cattle  and  sheep  take  very  large  doses.     Morphine    and 


286  VETERINARY  STUDIES 

various  preparations  of  opium  are  frequently  employed  with 
advantage  in  spasmodic  colic,  and  may  be  combined  with 
stimulants  and  anodynes  like  ether,  sweet  spirit  of  niter,  or 
chloral  hydrate.  It  is  usually  advisable  to  give  a  mild 
laxative  soon  after  the  opium  operates. 


INDEX 


Aborting  herd,  management  of,  260. 
Abortion,  255. 

Disinfection  in,  261. 

Infectious,  256,  258. 

Medical  treatment,  262, 

Preventive  treatment,  256. 

Results,  257. 

SjTnptoms,  257. 
Acariasis,  110. 

Accidents  of  pregnancy,  264. 
Actinomycosis,  lumpy  jaw,  146. 

Parts  involved,  147. 

Prevention,  148. 

Relation  to  public  health,  146. 

Treatment,  149. 
Afterbirth,  Retention  of,  267. 
Air  currents,  97. 
Alcohol,  87-280. 
Aloes,  279. 
Anaemia,  06. 
Anaesthetics,  280. 
Anatomy,  1. 
Anodynes?,  260. 
Aathrax,  1-52. 

Cause,  152. 

Course  of  the  disease,  155. 

Diagnosis,  156. 

Distribution,  152. 

Examination  post-mortem,  155. 

Introduction  and  spread,  153. 

Modes  of  infection,  152. 

Period  of  incubation,  154. 

Treatment,  156. 
Antispasmodics,  280. 
Aorta,  33. 
Arteries,  33. 
Articulations,  17. 
Atrophy,  72. 
Azoturia,  207. 

Causes,  208. 

Duration,  208. 

Par'cs  affected,  207. 

Prevention,  209. 

Prevalence,  207. 

Symptoms,  208. 

Treatment,  2iO. 


B 

Bacteria,  81. 

Classification  of ,  84. 
Bandaging,  78. 
Bladder,  55. 
Bleeding,  77. 
Blood,  32. 
Body  scab,  112. 
Bog  spa%TJis,  241. 
Bones,  composition  of,  2. 

Kinds  of,  1. 

Peculiarities  of,  2. 
Bony  growths,  238. 
Boracic  acid,  280. 
Bots,  128. 
Brain,  27. 
Bronchi,  42. 


Caecum,  47. 

Caesarian  section,  277. 

Capillaries,  33. 

Capped  hock,  242. 

Carbohydrates,  49. 

Carbolic  acid,  87,  281. 

Catarrh  in  sheep,  144. 

Causes  and  prevention  of  diseasei  81. 

Cerebrospinal  system,  26. 

Chloroform,  280. 

Choke,  217. 

Prevention,  217. 

Symptoms,  217. 

Treatment,  218. 
Circulation,  32. 
Colon,  47. 
Collapse,  72. 

Congestion  of  the  limgs,  251. 
Constipation  in  swine,  251. 
Contagium,  81. 
Coronarj'  band,  61. 
Corrosive  sublimate,  88,  282. 
Creolin,  88. 
Curb,  242. 


D 


Death,  72. 
Degenerations,  71. 
287 


288 


INDEX 


Dentition  of  horses,  4. 
Diaphoretics,  280. 
Digestion,  49. 
Digestive  apparatus,  43. 
Dipping,  119. 
Dips,  118. 

Diseases,  parasitic,  112. 
Disinfectants,  87. 
Disinfection,  86. 
Drenching,  278. 
Drenching  sheep,  139. 
Dropsy,  70. 
Diuretics,  280. 

E 

Embryotomy,  276. 

Epsom  salts,  282. 

Ergot,  256. 

Esophagostoma  columbianum,  131. 

Esophagus,  45. 

Exteinal  parasites,  125. 


Fallopian  tubes,  253. 

Farcy,  168. 

Fats,  50. 

Fever,  68. 

Flies,  126. 

Food,  103. 

Food  groups,  49. 

Foot,  11,  15,  59. 

Foot-and-mouth  disease,  164. 

Dissemination,  165. 

Prevention,  165. 

Symptoms,  164. 

Treatment,  165. 
Foot  rot,  160. 

Diagnosis,  160. 

General  symptoms,  160. 

Prevention,  162. 

Treatment,  161. 
Foot  scab,  113. 
Forearm,  10. 
Formalin,  88. 
Foul  foot,  162. 

G 

Ganglia,  30. 
Garget,  269. 

Causes,  269. 

Prevention,  270. 

Results,  269. 

Symptoms,  269. 

Treatment,  271. 
Gases,  diffusion  of,  96. 
Gestation,  normal  period  of,  255. 
Glanders,  166. 


Causes,  166. 
Diagnosis,  169. 
Incubation,  166. 
Prevention,  169. 
Symptoms,  166. 
Treatment,  170. 
Glycogen,  49. 


Head,  2. 

Head  scab,  114. 

Heat,  88. 

Heat  and  power,  source  of,  23. 

Heaves,  221. 

Autopsy,  223. 

Cause,  222. 

Definition,  221. 

Prevention,  223. 

Symptoms,  222. 

Treatment,  224. 
Hemorrhage,  70. 
Hemorrhagic  septicaemia,  171. 

Differential  diagnosis,  176. 

Etiology,  171. 

History,  171. 

Meningeal  type,  173. 

Meningeal  type,  symptoms,  173. 

Post  mortem,  172. 

Symptoms,  172. 
Heredity,  90. 
Hip  shot,  246. 
Hog  cholera,  178. 

Autopsy,  180. 

Cause,  181. 

Common  mistakes,  184. 

Disinfection,  186. 

How  scattered,  182. 

Symptoms,  179. 

Vaccination,  184. 

Variations  in  virulence,  178. 
Hoof,  60. 

Matrix,  61. 
Horses,  Age  of,  4. 
Hoven,  213. 

Causes,  213. 

Prevention,  215. 

Symptoms,  214. 

Treatment,  214. 
Hypersemia,  65. 
Hypertrophy,  70. 


In-and-in  breeding,  90. 

Infection,  86. 

Infectious  abortion,  causes,  258. 

Diagnosis,  259. 

Dissemination,  258. 

Effects,  259. 


INDEX 


289 


Infection,  259. 

Prevention,  259. 
Infiltration,  71. 
Inflammation,  66. 
Intestine,  45-47. 
Iodoform,  281. 


Kidnejrs,  53. 


Lameness,  237. 

General  examination,  237. 

Location,  237. 
Laminitis,  225. 

Cause,  225. 

Prevention,  227. 

Symptoms,  225. 

Termination,  226. 
Larynx,  41. 
Laudanum,  285. 
Leg,  13. 
Lice,  125. 
Ligaments,  18. 
Limb,  front,  10. 

Lime,  281. 

Linseed  oil,  282. 
Liver,  46. 
Lungs,  42. 
Lymphangitis,  228. 

Cause  and  history,  228. 

Definition,  228. 

Prevention,  229. 

Symptoms,  228. 

Treatment,  229. 
Lymphatic  system,  ?6. 

M 

Maggots,  79. 

Mammary  glands,  53-56. 

Mange,  109. 

Cattle,  123. 

Horse,  121. 
Medicines,  common,  278. 

Giving,  278. 
Milk,  57. 
Milk  fever,  231. 

Air  treatment,  235. 

Causes,  231. 

Prevention,  232. 

Treatment,  233. 
Minnesota  station,  95. 
Mite  diseases,  109. 
Morphine,  285. 
Mouth,  43. 
Muscles,  involuntary,  23. 

Structure  of,  22. 

Voluntary,  21, 
Muscular  system,  21. 


N 

Nasal  grub,  143. 
Natural  ventilation,  95. 
Navicular  disease,  247. 
Nematodes,  129. 
Nerves,  cranial,  28. 

Spinal,  29. 
Nerving,  246. 
Nervous  system,  25. 

Function  of,  25. 
Nitrate  of  potash,  284. 
Nodule  disease,  131. 
Nostrils,  40. 


Obstetrics,  253. 
Open  joint,  241. 
Opium,  285. 
Osteology,  1. 
Ovaries,  253. 
Oxidation,  38. 


Palate,  43. 
Pancreas,  47. 
Paralysis  of  s^\-ine,  250. 
Parasites,  external,  109. 
Parasitic  diseases,  107. 
Parasitism,  107. 
Parturient  paralysis,  231. 
Parturition,  accidents  of,  265. 
Assistance,  273. 
Causes  of  difficulty,  272. 
Difficult,  272. 
Dropsies  in,  274. 
Faulty  presentations,  272. 
Presentations,  272. 
Pathology-,  65. 
Peh-is,  13. 
Pharynx,  40,  45. 
Plagues  in  histor>%  82. 
Plantar  cushion,  62. 
Posterior  limb,  13. 
Pregnancy,  accidents  of,  255. 
Proteids,  50. 


Quinsy,  252. 


R 


Respiration,  38. 

Stages  of,  38. 
Rheumatism,  249. 

Causes,  249. 

Symptoms,  249. 

Treatment,  249. 


290 


INDEX 


Ribs,  8. 

Ringbones,  238. 
Ringworm,  127. 


s 


Sacrum,  7. 
Salivary  glands,  44. 
Saltpeter,  284. 
Scab,  spread  of,  114, 

Treatment  of,  117. 
Scabies,  109. 
Sensitive  laminse,  61. 
Shafts  and  tubes,  101. 
Sheep  scab,  112. 
Shcringham  valve,  102. 
Shoe  boil,  242. 
Shoulder,  10. 
Sidebones,  240. 
Sodium  chloride,  283. 
Sodium  hyposulphite  and  sulphite,  283. 
Soundness,  243. 

Examination  for,  244. 
Spavin,  240. 
Spavins,  238. 
Spinal  column,  6. 
Spinal  cord,  28. 
Splints,  238,  239. 
Sporadic  abortions,  255. 
Stable  air,  93. 
Stable  construction,  100. 
Stable  space  needed,  100. 
Sternum,  8. 
Stomach,  45. 
Stomach  worms,  136. 
Sulphur,  89. 
Sunshine,  89. 
Sweet  spirits  niter,  284. 
Swill-barrel  cholera,  178. 
Swine,  common  diseases  of,  249. 
Sympathetic  nervous  system,  30. 
Symptomatic  anthrax,  157. 

Cause,  157. 

Prevention,  158. 

Symptoms,  157. 

Treatment,  159. 

Vaccination,  158. 
Syncope,  72. 
Synovia,  19, 


Tapeworms,  129. 
Teeth,  3. 
Tendon,  22. 


Texas  fever,  187. 

Causes,  187. 

Extermination,  192. 

Incubation,  188. 

Inoculation,  193. 

Post  mortem,  190. 

Prevention,  191. 

Symptoms,  188. 

Transmission,  187. 

Treatment,  191. 
Thigh,  13. 
Thoroughpin,  241. 
Ticks,  127. 
Tongue,  43. 
Trachea,  41. 
Tuberculin,  accuracy,  203. 

Diagnosis,  205. 

Effect  on  cattle,  202. 

Test,  202. 
Tuberculosis,  195. 

Diagnosis,  198. 

Infection,  196. 

Prevalence,  195. 

Prevention,  198. 

Symptoms,  197, 
Turpentine,  284. 

u 

Unsoundness,  243. 
Ureters,  54. 
Urethra,  55. 
Urinary  organs,  53, 
Uterus,  253. 

Inversion  of,  265. 


Vagina,  255. 
Veins,  33-35. 
Velvety  tissue,  61, 
Ventilation,  93. 

Necessity  of,  94. 

Needed,  99. 
Verminous  bronchitis,  141. 
Vertebrse,  6. 
Volvvdus,  264, 


w 


Water,  104, 
Wind  puffs,  241. 
Windows,  101, 
Womb.  253. 
Wounds.  73. 
Healing  of,  73. 


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HTHE  foU<ywing  pages  contain  ad- 

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BOCKS  ON  AGRICULTURE 

On  Selection  of  Land,  etc. 

Thomas  F.  Hunt's  How  to  Choose  a  Farm     .        .        ,        ,        .$175 

E.  W.  Hilgard's  Soils :  Their  Formation  and  Relations  to  Climate 

and  Plant  Growth 400 

Isaac  P.  Roberts'  The  Farmstead     .......150 

On  Tillage,  etc. 

F.  H.  King's  The  Soil 150 

Isaac  P.  Roberts'  The  Fertility  of  the  Land i  50 

Elwood  Mead's  Irrigation  Institutions i  25 

F.  H.  King's  Irrigation  and  Drainage i  50 

William  E.  Smythe's  The  Conquest  of  Arid  America     .        .        .  i  50 

Edward  B.  Voorhees'  Fertilizers I  25 

Edward  B.  Voorhees'  Forage  Crops i  50 

H.  Snyder's  Chemistry  of  Plant  and  Animal  Life    .        .                 .  i  25 

H.  Snyder's  Soil  and  Fertilizers.     Third  edition     .        .        .        .  1  25 

L.  H.  Bailey's  Principles  of  Agriculture i  25 

W.  C.  Welborn's  Elements  of  Agriculture,  Southern  and  Western  .  75 

J.  F.  Duggar's  Agriculture  for  Southern  Schools     ....  75 

G.  F.  Warren's  Elements  of  Agriculture  .        ...        .        .  i  10 

T.  L.  Lyon  and  E.  O.  Fippen's  The  Principles  of  Soil  Management  i  75 

Hilgard  &  Osterhout's  Agriculture  for  Schools  on  the  Pacific  Slope  i  00 

On  Plant  Diseases,  etc. 

George  Massee's  Plant  Diseases       .                .        .        .        .  i  60 

J.  G.  Lipman's  Bacteria  in  Relation  to  Country  Life      .        .        .  i  50 

E.  C.  Lodeman's  The  Spraying  of  Plants i  25 

H.  M.  Ward's  Disease  in  Plants  (English) i  60 

A.  S.  Packard's  A  Text-book  on  Entomology         .        .        .        .  4  50 

Stevens  &  Hall's  Diseases  of  Economic  Plants        .        .        .        .  2  00 

On  Production  of  New  Plants 

L.  H.  Bailey's  Plant-Breeding I  25 

L.  H.  Bailey's  The  Survival  of  the  Unlike 2  00 

L.  H.  Bailey's  The  Evolution  of  Our  Native  Fruits          .        .        .  2  00 

W.  S.  Harwood's  New  Creations  in  Plant  Life       ,        .        .        .  i  75 

On  Garden-Making 

L.  H.  Bailey's  Manual  of  Gardening 200 

L.  H.  Bailey's  Vegetable-Gardening I  50 

L.  H.  Bailey's  Horticulturist's  Rule  Book 75 

L.  H.  Bailey's  Forcing  Book     ........125 

A.  French's  Book  of  Vegetables        .......175 

On  Fruit-Growing,  etc. 

L.  H.  Bailey's  Nursery  Book    ........15° 

L.  H.  Bailey's  Fruit-Growing i  50 

L.  H.  Bailey's  The  Pruning  Book 15° 

F.  W.  Card's  Bush  Fruits I  5° 

J.  T.  Bealby  s  Fruit  Ranching  in  British  Columbia         .       •        .  1  50 


BOOKS  ON  AGRICULTURE  — Continued 
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D.  E.  Lyon's  How  to  Keep  Bees  for  Profit      •        . 


Nelson  S.  Mayo's  The  Diseases  of  Animals    .        . 

W.  H.  Jordan's  The  Feeding  of  Animals         >        . 

I.  P.  Roberts'  The  Horse  .        .        ,        , 

George  C.  Watson's  Farm  Poultry   . 

C.  S.  Valentine's  How  to  Keep  Hens  for  Profit       . 

O.  Kellner's  The  Scientific  Feeding  of  Animals  (translation) 

H.  R.  Lewis'  Poultry  Laboratory  Guide  .... 


$1  so 
I  50 

I  25 

I  25 

I  90 
6:; 


On  Dairy  Work 

Henry  H.  Wing's  Milk  and  its  Products I  50 

C.  M.  Aikman's  Milk ,.,.125 

Harry  Snyder's  Dairy  Chemistry i  00 

W.  D.  Frost's  Laboratory  Guide  in  Elementary  Bacteriology        .  i  60 

I.  P.  Sheldon's  The  Farm  and  the  Dairy I  00 

Chr.  Barthel's  Methods  Used  in  the  Examinatioa  of  Milk  and 

Dairy  Products       ..........  I  90 

On  Economics  and  Organization 

J.  McLennan 's  Manual  of  Practical  Farming  .        .        •        .        .  l  50 

L.  H.  Bailey's  The  State  and  the  Farmer         .        .        .        .        .  i  25 

Henry  C.  Taylor's  Agricultural  Economics      .        .        .        .        .  i  25 

L  P.  Roberts'  The  Farmer's  Business  Handbook  .        .        .        .  i  25 

George  T.  Fairchild's  Rural  Wealth  and  Welfare  .        .        .        .  I  25 

S.  E.  Sparling's  Business  Organization I  25 

In  the  Citizen's  Library.    Includes  a  chapter  on  Farming 

Kate  V.  St.  Maur's  A  Self-supporting  Home I  75 

Kate  V.  St.  Maur's  The  Earth's  Bounty i  75 

G.  F.  Warren  and  K.  C.  Livermore's  Exercises  in  Farm  Management  80 

Ob  Everything  Agricultural 

L.  H.  Bailey's  Cyclopedia  of  American  Agriculture: 
Vol.  I.    Farms,  Climates,  and  Soils. 
Vol.  IT.    Farm  Crops. 
Vol.  III.     Farm  Animals. 
Vol.  IV.    The  Farm  and  the  Community. 

To  be  complete  in  four  royal  8vo  volumes,  with  over  2000  JUustrations. 
Price  of  sets:  Cloth,  $20  half-morocco,  ^32 


Ihr  further  information  as  to  any  of  the  above, 
address  the  publishers 


PUBLISHED    BY 

THE  MACMILLAN  COMPANY 

64-66  Fifth  Avenue,  New  Tork 


The  Horse 

By  ISAAC  PHILLIPS  ROBERTS 

Cloth,  i2mo,  illustrated,  $1.25  by  mail,  $i.j8 

"  A  thousand  questions  that  every  horse-owner  will  sooner  or  later 
have  occasion  to  ask  are  clearly  and  authoritatively  answered  in 
this  volume.  It  also  gives  in  outline  the  history  of  the  American 
horse,  traces  the  development  of  the  trotter  and  pacer,  etc.  All 
this  is  told  in  an  entertaining  way,  with  an  enthusiasm  for  the  sub- 
ject that  adds  sparkle  to  the  story."  —  Country  Calendar. 

The  Diseases  of  Animals 

By  nelson  S.  MAYO 

Third  edition.     Cloth,  izmo,  illustrated,  458  pages,  $1.50  J^' 

by  mail,  $1.62 

"It  includes  about  all  that  the  practical  keeper  of  live-stock  has 
need  of,  and  the  method  of  presentation  could  hardly  be  better. 
The  exposition  has  the  charm  of  perfect  clearness  and  simplicity, 
•which  makes  the  book  agreeable  even  to  the  reader  not  in  search 
of  specific  facts." —  Country  Gentleman. 

The  Feeding  of  Animals 

By  whitman  HOWARD  JORDAN 

Cloth,  i2mo,  illustrated,  450  pages,  $1.50  by  mail,  $1.65 

"A  valuable  contribution  to  agricultural  literature.  Not  a  state- 
ment of  rules  or  details  of  practice,  but  an  effort  to  present  the 
main  facts  and  principles  fundamental  to  the  art  of  feeding  ani- 
mals." —  New  England  Farmer. 


PUBLISHED    BY 

THE   MACMILLAN    COMPANY 

64-66  Fifth  Avenue,  New  York 


